11.2 Modern Indian History & Freedom Struggle

Why Modern History Matters for RRB Group D

After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the Mughal empire fragmented, regional powers arose (Marathas, Awadh, Bengal, Mysore, Sikhs), and European trading companies arrived. The story of modern India is the story of the British East India Company consolidating control, the 1857 Revolt that ended Company rule, the freedom struggle that ended British rule in 1947, and the founding of the Republic in 1950. For RRB Group D, expect questions on battles, acts, founders of reform movements, dates of Congress sessions, and the names of Gandhian movements and their years.

Arrival of the Europeans

Carnatic Wars (1746–1763) between the English and French ended French political ambitions in India. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened both, clearing the way for the English.

Battles that Built the Raj

Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757) — Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, was defeated by Robert Clive through the conspiracy of Mir Jafar, Amir Chand, and Jagat Seth. The Company gained control of Bengal's revenues and a puppet nawab. This was the start of British political rule in India.

Battle of Buxar (22 October 1764) — The combined forces of Mir Qasim (Bengal), Shuja-ud-daula (Awadh), and Shah Alam II (Mughal emperor) were defeated by Hector Munro. The resulting Treaty of Allahabad (1765) granted the Company the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. Lord Clive became the first Governor of Bengal. Lord Wellesley (1798–1805) used the Subsidiary Alliance to bring princely states under Company control (first to accept: Nizam of Hyderabad). Lord Hastings completed the policy with the Doctrine of Paramountcy.

Major Reforms and Acts

The Revolt of 1857

Begins at Meerut on 10 May 1857; the spark was the greased cartridges (cow and pig fat) for the new Enfield rifle. On 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore, Mangal Pandey attacked British officers and was hanged on 8 April. Bahadur Shah II was declared emperor at Delhi. Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Nana Saheb (Kanpur — adopted son of Baji Rao II), Tantia Tope, Begum Hazrat Mahal (Awadh), and Kunwar Singh (Bihar) led the revolt. It failed due to limited spread (did not reach the whole of India), lack of unified leadership, and the loyalty of Sikh and Gurkha soldiers. Lord Canning was the Viceroy; he declared in 1858: "the rebellion is a thing of the past". Result: end of Company rule (Government of India Act 1858), Queen Victoria's Proclamation at Allahabad (1 November 1858).

Socio-Religious Reform Movements

Key reform causes: abolition of Sati (1829 — William Bentinck, on Raja Ram Mohan Roy's appeal), Widow Remarriage Act 1856 (Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar), suppression of thuggee (Sleeman), Female Infanticide prevention (Bentinck), raising the age of consent (1891, 1929 — Sarda Act).

The Indian National Congress

Founded on 28 December 1885 at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, Bombay, by A. O. Hume (retired British civil servant), with W. C. Bonnerjee as first president. First session: 72 delegates. The Congress had two phases: Moderates (1885–1905) led by Dadabhai Naoroji ("Grand Old Man of India"; Drain of Wealth theory), Pherozeshah Mehta, D. E. Wacha, G. K. Gokhale (Servants of India Society, 1905). Methods: petitions, prayers, protests — the Three P's.

Extremists (1905–1919): Bal Gangadhar Tilak ("Swaraj is my birthright"; Kesari and Mahratta), Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal (the trio Lal-Bal-Pal), Aurobindo Ghosh. Methods: passive resistance, swadeshi, boycott.

Major Congress sessions: Surat 1907 (the split between Moderates and Extremists), Lucknow 1916 (the two wings reunited, and the Congress–Muslim League "Lucknow Pact" was signed), Lahore 1929 (Jawaharlal Nehru presiding; the Poorna Swaraj resolution, with 26 January 1930 observed as the first Independence Day), and Karachi 1931 (the Fundamental Rights and Economic Programme resolution).

Partition of Bengal (1905)

Carried out by Lord Curzon on 16 October 1905 on the pretext of administrative convenience but actually to divide Hindus and Muslims. Result: the Swadeshi Movement — bonfires of foreign cloth, the rise of indigenous industries (Bengal Chemical by Prafulla Chandra Ray; Tata Iron and Steel Co. 1907), boycott of British goods. Rabindranath Tagore composed Amar Sonar Bangla (now Bangladesh's anthem) on the day of partition. The partition was annulled in 1911 by Lord Hardinge II, and the capital was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi (Delhi Durbar 1911).

Gandhian Mass Movements

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917, Bihar — indigo planters; first civil disobedience in India) | Kheda (1918, Gujarat — peasant revenue) | Ahmedabad Mill (1918 — workers' wage; first hunger strike).
• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) — launched at the Nagpur Congress session (1920); called off by Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident (5 February 1922, Gorakhpur, UP — 22 policemen burnt).
• Civil Disobedience Movement — began with the Dandi March / Salt Satyagraha (12 March – 6 April 1930; 240 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi; 78 marchers; Gandhi broke the salt law on 6 April). First Round Table Conference (Nov 1930 – Jan 1931) was boycotted by Congress. Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931) led to Gandhi's participation in the Second Round Table Conference (Sept – Dec 1931, London).
• Quit India Movement (8 August 1942) — "Do or Die" (Karenge ya Marenge) speech at Gowalia Tank Maidan (now August Kranti Maidan, Bombay). Mass upsurge, leaders arrested.

Revolutionary and Other Movements

• Indian National Army (INA / Azad Hind Fauj) — first formed by Mohan Singh (1942) in Singapore from Indian POWs; Subhas Chandra Bose took leadership in 1943 in Singapore, with the slogan "Jai Hind" and the womens' Rani of Jhansi Regiment (Captain Lakshmi Sahgal). INA trials at Red Fort (1945–46) caused the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (18 February 1946, Bombay — B. C. Dutt).
• Kakori Train Robbery (9 August 1925 — Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Roshan Singh).
• Alipore Bomb Case (1908 – Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Ghosh).

Independence and Partition

Cabinet Mission Plan (March 1946) proposed a federal India with grouping of provinces; accepted by Congress and the Muslim League initially, then rejected by the League. Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) accepted partition. The Indian Independence Act was passed by the British Parliament on 18 July 1947 and implemented on 15 August 1947. Lord Mountbatten became the first Governor-General of independent India; C. Rajagopalachari was the first and last Indian Governor-General. The Constituent Assembly (first meeting 9 December 1946; Sachchidananda Sinha as interim president; Dr. Rajendra Prasad as permanent president) drafted the Constitution under the Drafting Committee chaired by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950.

Exam Scenario Alert

RRB Group D questions here are usually one-liners: "Who founded the Arya Samaj?", "When was the partition of Bengal annulled?", "Where was the first session of the Indian National Congress held?", "When was the Dandi March started?". Memorise year + place + founder for each movement.