7.3 Psychosocial, Moral, and Behavioral Theories: Erikson, Kohlberg, Bandura
Key Takeaways
- Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Theory spans eight lifespan stages, each defined by a specific crisis whose successful resolution yields a fundamental ego virtue.
- Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a 3-level, 6-stage moral development framework based on moral reasoning progression from self-interest to social conformity and universal ethics.
- Albert Bandura's Social Learning / Social Cognitive Theory demonstrates that learning occurs vicariously through observation, modeling, and self-efficacy mechanisms.
- B.F. Skinner's Operant Conditioning uses positive/negative reinforcement to increase target behaviors and positive/negative punishment to decrease unwanted behaviors.
- Carol Gilligan critiqued Kohlberg's model for male-centric bias, advocating for an Ethics of Care alongside Kohlberg's Ethics of Justice.
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) expanded Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory by emphasizing the social and cultural influences on personality development across the entire lifespan. Erikson formulated the Epigenetic Principle, which states that human development unfolds through a predetermined sequence of eight stages, with each stage presenting a specific psychosocial crisis.
The Eight Psychosocial Stages
Successful resolution of each crisis leads to the acquisition of a core Ego Virtue, whereas failure to resolve the crisis results in psychological difficulty and reduced coping capacity in subsequent stages.
| Stage | Age Period | Psychosocial Crisis | Core Ego Virtue | Pedagogical & Behavioral Implications |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Infancy (0–1.5 yrs) | Trust vs. Mistrust | Hope | Consistent, loving care builds basic trust in caregivers and the environment. |
| 2 | Early Childhood (1.5–3 yrs) | Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt | Will | Encouraging self-care choices (dressing, feeding) fosters autonomy; harsh control causes doubt. |
| 3 | Preschool (3–6 yrs) | Initiative vs. Guilt | Purpose | Supporting imaginative play and self-chosen projects builds initiative; over-criticism breeds guilt. |
| 4 | Elementary (6–12 yrs) | Industry vs. Inferiority | Competence | Teacher praise for effort and academic mastery fosters industry; repeated failure breeds inferiority. |
| 5 | Adolescence (12–18 yrs) | Identity vs. Role Confusion | Fidelity | Supporting identity exploration, career guidance, and self-expression prevents role confusion. |
| 6 | Young Adulthood (18–40 yrs) | Intimacy vs. Isolation | Love | Forming deep, committed romantic and peer relationships; failure leads to isolation. |
| 7 | Middle Adulthood (40–65 yrs) | Generativity vs. Stagnation | Care | Contributing to the next generation through teaching, parenting, and community work. |
| 8 | Late Adulthood (65+ yrs) | Integrity vs. Despair | Wisdom | Reflecting on life with fulfillment leads to integrity; unfulfilled goals yield despair. |
LET Exam Focus: Teachers primarily interact with learners in Stage 4 (Industry vs. Inferiority) during elementary school and Stage 5 (Identity vs. Role Confusion) during secondary school. Educators must structure tasks so that every student experiences authentic success, thereby protecting them from feelings of pervasive inadequacy.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) studied moral reasoning by presenting subjects with hypothetical moral dilemmas, most famously the Heinz Dilemma (a man deciding whether to steal an unaffordable drug to save his dying wife). Kohlberg emphasized that moral maturity is determined by the reasoning behind a decision, not the decision itself.
Kohlberg’s Three Levels and Six Stages
Level 1: Pre-Conventional (Punishment & Self-Interest)
├── Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment
└── Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange (Instrumental Relativist)
Level 2: Conventional (Social Approval & Law/Order)
├── Stage 3: Interpersonal Conformity ("Good Boy / Nice Girl")
└── Stage 4: Law & Order (Social System Maintenance)
Level 3: Post-Conventional (Social Contract & Universal Ethics)
├── Stage 5: Social Contract & Individual Rights
└── Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
Level 1: Pre-Conventional Morality (Typically Primary School & Below)
Moral reasoning is controlled by external rewards and punishments.
- Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation: Rules are obeyed strictly to avoid physical punishment. ("Heinz should not steal the drug because he will go to jail.")
- Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange (Instrumental Relativist): Right behavior is defined by what satisfies one's own personal needs or involves equal exchange. ("Heinz should steal the drug because his wife will return the favor by making him dinner." / "Scratch my back and I'll scratch yours.")
Level 2: Conventional Morality (Typically Adolescents & Most Adults)
Moral reasoning is governed by social norms, expectations, and laws.
- Stage 3: Interpersonal Conformity ("Good Boy / Good Girl" Orientation): Behavior is judged by its intent to please, help, or gain approval from significant others. ("Heinz should steal the drug because he wants to be a loving husband in the eyes of his family.")
- Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation (Social System Maintenance): Duty, respect for authority, and maintaining societal rules dictate right action. ("Heinz should not steal because stealing violates the law, and if everyone broke laws, society would collapse into chaos.")
Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality (Achieved by a Minority of Adults)
Moral reasoning is guided by self-chosen ethical principles and human rights.
- Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights: Laws are recognized as flexible contracts created to protect human rights. If a law violates human rights, it should be changed through due process. ("Heinz should steal the drug because the right to human life supersedes the legal property rights of the druggist.")
- Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Right action is determined by self-chosen ethical principles of conscience (e.g., justice, human dignity, equality) that transcend written laws. ("Heinz must steal the drug because saving a life is a categorical moral imperative that applies to all human beings regardless of legal consequences.")
Carol Gilligan’s Feminist Critique
Carol Gilligan argued that Kohlberg's stage model exhibited gender bias because it was developed using exclusively male subjects. Gilligan posited that men typically operate under an Ethics of Justice (focused on abstract rights and rules), whereas women often operate under an Ethics of Care (focused on interpersonal relationships, compassion, and non-harm).
Behavioral Theories: Classical and Operant Conditioning
Behaviorism views learning as an observable change in behavior resulting from environmental stimuli and responses.
1. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov & John B. Watson)
Classical conditioning involves pairing an involuntary, reflex response with a previously neutral stimulus:
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that naturally triggers a reflex (e.g., food).
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): Unlearned natural reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivation).
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that, after association with UCS, triggers a response (e.g., bell sound).
- Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation at bell sound).
Classroom Application: A student who experiences harsh public humiliation (UCS) by a teacher feels intense anxiety (UCR). Over time, the math classroom itself (CS) triggers severe anxiety (CR), leading to math phobia.
2. Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
B.F. Skinner demonstrated that voluntary behaviors are modified by their consequences. The core mechanisms include:
| Operant Mechanism | Action Taken | Target Behavior Result | Practical Classroom Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Positive Reinforcement | Add a desirable stimulus | Increases behavior | Teacher gives merit stickers to students who finish quiet reading. |
| Negative Reinforcement | Remove an aversive stimulus | Increases behavior | Teacher cancels weekend homework because the class maintained 100% attendance. |
| Positive Punishment | Add an aversive stimulus | Decreases behavior | Teacher assigns a written detention essay to a student who shouted in class. |
| Negative Punishment | Remove a desirable stimulus | Decreases behavior | Teacher revokes 10 minutes of recess time due to disruptive classroom noise. |
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning / Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura (1925–2021) bridged behaviorism and cognitive theory through his Social Cognitive Theory, demonstrating that individuals can learn new behaviors without direct reinforcement through Observational Learning (Modeling).
Four Necessary Processes for Observational Learning
- Attention: The learner must perceive and pay attention to the model's key behavioral features.
- Retention: The learner must store a mental representation of the observed behavior in memory.
- Motor Reproduction: The learner must possess the physical and cognitive capacity to replicate the behavior.
- Motivation / Reinforcement: The learner must have an incentive or expectation of reinforcement to execute the learned behavior.
Triadic Reciprocal Determinism and Self-Efficacy
Bandura proposed that human functioning results from the continuous interaction among three forces: Person (P) (cognitive/biological factors), Behavior (B), and Environment (E).
Central to Bandura's model is Self-Efficacy—an individual's belief in their capability to execute specific actions required to achieve designated performance goals. Teachers build self-efficacy through:
- Mastery Experiences: Providing achievable challenges that lead to genuine success.
- Vicarious Experiences: Allowing students to observe peer models succeeding.
- Social Persuasion: Providing constructive, encouragement-based feedback.
- Physiological State Management: Reducing stress and anxiety during testing scenarios.
A Grade 9 student refuses to copy test answers from a classmate during a major exam because she believes that breaking the school Honor Code undermines the stability and fairness of the entire school system. According to Kohlberg, at which stage of moral reasoning is this student operating?
To encourage quiet entry into the classroom, Teacher Juan announces that if all students quietly take their seats within 30 seconds after the bell, he will remove the mandatory 5-minute silent review at the end of the period. The targeted behavior of entering quietly increases. What operant conditioning principle is applied?
An elementary school student fails reading tasks repeatedly and begins to express feelings of hopelessness, saying 'I am stupid, so why even try?' According to Erik Erikson, which psychosocial crisis has been resolved unfavorably?
According to Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory, what is the correct order of cognitive-behavioral processes required for successful observational learning?