2.3 Inferences and Drawing Conclusions
Key Takeaways
- An inference combines stated text evidence with reasonable prior knowledge to understand what the author implies but does not state directly.
- The inference equation: Text Evidence + Background Knowledge = Logical Inference; a valid inference can always be traced back to specific words in the passage.
- A conclusion is a broader judgment that pulls together multiple pieces of evidence across a passage.
- Wrong inference answers are usually too extreme, contradict the text, or rely on outside opinion not supported by the passage.
- Paraprofessionals guide inference with the question 'What in the text makes you think so?' and tools like an It Says / I Say / And So chart.
Reading Between the Lines
Authors rarely state everything. They expect readers to fill gaps using clues. An inference is a logical conclusion you reach by combining what the text states with what you already know about the world. ETS phrases these questions with stems such as "It can be inferred that...", "The passage suggests...", "The author implies...", and "Based on the passage, the reader can conclude...". When you see those words, the answer is not printed word-for-word in the passage — but it must be firmly supported by it.
Hold onto one rule above all: a valid inference can always be traced back to specific evidence in the text. If you cannot point to the words that support your choice, it is probably a guess, not an inference. This same standard — "What in the text makes you think that?" — is the heart of the classroom-application questions too.
The Inference Equation
A simple formula keeps inferences honest:
Text Evidence + Background Knowledge = Logical Inference
| Step | Question to ask | Example |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Text evidence | What clues does the passage give? | "She zipped her coat and pulled on a wool hat." |
| 2. Background knowledge | What do I already know? | People bundle up when it is cold. |
| 3. Inference | What logically follows? | The weather is cold. |
Notice that the passage never says "it was cold." You inferred it. The danger is over-inferring — adding more than the evidence supports. From "she zipped her coat" you can infer it was cold; you cannot infer that it was snowing, that she was unhappy, or that it was winter. Those go beyond the clues.
Inferences vs. Conclusions
The two terms overlap, and the ParaPro sometimes uses them interchangeably, but a useful distinction helps:
- An inference is usually a small, local read-between-the-lines move from a sentence or two ("He slammed the door" → he is angry).
- A conclusion is a broader judgment that pulls together multiple pieces of evidence from across the whole passage ("Given all the evidence about cost, time, and safety, the writer believes the new policy is worthwhile").
Both must be evidence-based, logical, and reasonable — never an extreme leap. The most common wrong answers on these items fall into three buckets, and learning to name them speeds up elimination.
Spotting Wrong-Answer Traps
| Trap | Why it is wrong | Tell-tale sign |
|---|---|---|
| Too extreme | Goes further than the evidence | words like always, never, all, none |
| Contradicts the text | States the opposite of a clue | conflicts with a sentence you can find |
| Outside the passage | True in the world but unsupported here | sounds reasonable but has no textual clue |
| Too narrow | A single detail, not the implied point | restates one line rather than reasoning |
When two choices both seem possible, pick the one with more textual support and less of a leap. The ParaPro favors the safe, well-grounded inference over the dramatic one.
A Worked Example
Example passage: Dana arrived at the science fair an hour early. She set out her trifold board, arranged her notecards in order, and quietly rehearsed her opening lines under her breath. When a judge finally approached, her hands trembled slightly, but she smiled and began to speak.
Question: It can be inferred that Dana — (A) dislikes science (B) was unprepared (C) felt nervous but had prepared carefully (D) won first place
Reasoning: Trace the evidence. "Arrived an hour early," "arranged her notecards in order," and "rehearsed" all point to careful preparation. "Hands trembled" plus "smiled and began" point to nervousness she pushed through. Combine them: (C). Now reject the traps — (A) contradicts her effort; (B) contradicts her preparation; (D) goes beyond the passage, which never mentions results.
Guiding Students to Infer (Classroom Application)
Inference is hard for many readers because nothing on the page says the answer. As a paraprofessional working under the teacher's plan, your job is to make the invisible thinking visible. Correct strategies include:
- Ask for the evidence — the single most powerful prompt is "What in the text makes you think that?" It forces the student to ground the inference.
- Use an It Says / I Say / And So chart — It Says (text clue) + I Say (what I know) = And So (my inference). This mirrors the inference equation.
- Model a think-aloud — narrate your own reasoning: "The author says her hands trembled, and I know people tremble when nervous, so I think she was nervous."
- Check for over-inferring — gently ask, "Does the passage actually tell us that, or did we add it?"
- Connect to prior knowledge — "Have you ever felt that way? What told you?"
Avoid answers where the paraprofessional simply states the inference, tells the student inferences are "just opinions," or accepts a guess with no evidence. The exam wants evidence-anchored reasoning.
A passage states: 'Mr. Alvarez checked the clock for the third time, tapped his pen on the desk, and kept glancing toward the empty chair by the window.' What is the most reasonable inference?
Which of these is the clearest sign that an answer choice is an INVALID inference?
Put the steps of the inference equation (It Says / I Say / And So) in the correct order.
Arrange the items in the correct order
A student infers that a character in a story 'is rich' because the character 'lives in a big house.' The teacher's goal is evidence-based reasoning. What is the BEST paraprofessional response?