11.5 Non-Target Safety: Pollinators, Wildlife & Endangered Species

Non-Target Safety, Pollinator Protection & Endangered Species

Core Regulatory Principle: Pesticide applications must be executed with surgical precision to suppress target economic pests without causing collateral ecological damage to non-target organisms, beneficial insects, commercial apiaries, endangered species, or aquatic ecosystems. Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), the Endangered Species Act (ESA), and Oregon Department of Agriculture Administrative Rules (OAR 603-057), applicators carry legal responsibility for protecting non-target biological communities. Landmark regulatory actions—including Oregon's permanent ban on neonicotinoid applications to Tilia species (OAR 603-057-0388) and EPA's mandatory Bulletins Live! Two spatial habitat protection system—represent enforceable legal standards designed to safeguard biodiversity and agricultural productivity.

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1. Pollinator Ecology & Agricultural Significance in Oregon

Oregon's agricultural economy is profoundly dependent on animal-mediated pollination. More than 150 specialty crops grown in Oregon—including sweet cherries, European and Asian pears, blueberries, marionberries, caneberries, clover seed, alfalfa seed, and hybrid vegetable seeds (cabbage, onions, carrots)—require active insect pollination to achieve commercial fruit set and seed yields.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                   KEY AGRICULTURAL POLLINATORS IN OREGON               │
│                                                                        │
│  1. EUROPEAN HONEY BEES (Apis mellifera):                              │
│     • Managed social colonies; critical for commercial tree fruit,     │
│       berries, and specialty seed crops across Oregon.                 │
│                                                                        │
│  2. NATIVE BUMBLEBEES (Bombus spp., e.g., Bombus vosnesenskii):        │
│     • Highly efficient buzz-pollinators; vital for early spring tree   │
│       fruit, caneberries, tomatoes, and native ecosystems.             │
│                                                                        │
│  3. SOLITARY & SPECIALIST BEES:                                        │
│     • Orchard Mason Bees (Osmia lignaria): Cold-weather orchard fruit. │
│     • Alfalfa Leafcutting Bees (Megachile rotundata): Alfalfa seed.    │
│     • Alkali Bees (Nomia melanderi): Ground-nesting specialist in      │
│       eastern Oregon (Treasure Valley / Malheur County seed crops).    │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

1. Routes of Pollinator Pesticide Exposure

Bees and non-target beneficial insects encounter pesticides through four distinct exposure pathways:

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                   ROUTES OF POLLINATOR PESTICIDE EXPOSURE              │
│                                                                        │
│  1. DIRECT TOPICAL CONTACT:                                            │
│     • Foragers flying through airborne spray plumes or directly        │
│       hit by spray droplets while foraging on target/weed blooms.      │
│                                                                        │
│  2. FOLIAR RESIDUAL CONTACT:                                           │
│     • Foragers walking across dried or wet pesticide residues on leaf, │
│       petal, or bract surfaces hours/days after application.           │
│                                                                        │
│  3. SYSTEMIC ORAL INGESTION:                                           │
│     • Consumption of nectar, pollen grains, or guttation fluid droplets│
│       containing translocated systemic insecticides (neonicotinoids,   │
│       diamides, sulfoximines).                                         │
│                                                                        │
│  4. HIVE & BROOD CONTAMINATION:                                        │
│     • Foragers carry contaminated pollen/nectar back to the hive,      │
│       incorporating residues into beeswax and bee bread fed to larvae. │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

2. Acute Lethal Toxicity vs. Sub-Lethal Neurobehavioral Pathology

Pesticide impacts on pollinators span a continuum from immediate acute mortality to insidious sub-lethal colony collapse:

• Acute Lethality: High-dose exposure to neurotoxic insecticides (organophosphates, carbamates, synthetic pyrethroids, neonicotinoids) causes rapid excitation, tremors, wing paralysis, regurgitation, ataxia, and massive forager death. Piles of dead bees outside the hive entrance indicate acute contact poisoning.
• Sub-Lethal Behavioral & Neurological Impairment: Low-dose, chronic exposure to systemic insecticides (at parts-per-billion $\text{ppb}$ concentrations) impairs neural acetylcholine signaling in the bee mushroom bodies (brain learning centers):
  • Memory & Olfactory Learning Disruption: Foragers lose the ability to associate floral scents with food rewards.
  • Navigation & Homing Failure: Bees become disoriented in the field, fail to orient via polarized light/sun compass, and cannot navigate back to the hive (forager attrition).
  • Communication Breakdown: Disruption of the intricate "waggle dance" used to communicate floral coordinates to nestmates.
  • Brood & Queen Pathology: Reduced larval survival, stunted queen rearing, suppressed immune defense against Nosema microsporidia and Varroa destructor mite parasitism.

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2. Pollinator Hazard Metrics & Label Restrictions

Pesticide regulatory authorities categorize pollinator toxicity using standardized toxicological and field persistence metrics.

1. Extended Residual Toxicity (RT25 / $RT_{25}$)

Extended Residual Toxicity ($RT_{25}$) is defined as the time (in hours) following an application under realistic field conditions required for foliar chemical residues to weather, degrade, and dissipate until honey bee mortality drops below 25% upon 24-hour contact exposure.

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                               EXTENDED RESIDUAL TOXICITY (RT25) OPERATIONAL MATRIX                       │
│                                                                                                          │
│  RT25 Rating Window      Foliar Residue Hazard    Mandatory Operational Application Timing Rule          │
│  ──────────────────      ─────────────────────    ─────────────────────────────────────────────          │
│  RT25 > 8 Hours          HIGH RESIDUAL HAZARD     DO NOT APPLY during bloom or when bees are foraging!   │
│  (e.g., Chlorpyrifos,                             Evening application is INSUFFICIENT; residues remain   │
│   Carbaryl, Imidacloprid)                         lethal the following morning during foraging hours.    │
│                                                                                                          │
│  RT25 = 2 to 8 Hours     MODERATE RESIDUAL HAZARD APPLY ONLY IN LATE EVENING / NIGHT (after dusk).       │
│  (e.g., Spinetoram,                               Allows residues 6–8 hours to dry and degrade before    │
│   certain Pyrethroids)                            foragers emerge at sunrise.                            │
│                                                                                                          │
│  RT25 < 2 Hours          LOW RESIDUAL HAZARD      APPLY DURING EVENING OR EARLY MORNING.                 │
│  (e.g., Bt, Spinosad                              Residues rapidly detoxify once dry on foliage.         │
│   foliar dry, Fungicides)                         Do not spray directly onto active foragers.            │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

2. The EPA Pollinator Protection Box & "Bee Hazard Icon"

In 2013, the EPA introduced the Pollinator Protection Box featuring the prominent Bee Hazard Icon (a diamond border enclosing a honey bee graphic) on all foliar insecticide labels containing active ingredients acutely toxic to bees ($LD_{50} < 11\ \mu\text{g}/\text{bee}$), such as neonicotinoids, pyrethroids, and organophosphates.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                THE EPA POLLINATOR PROTECTION LABEL BOX                 │
│                                                                        │
│                    / \                                                 │
│                   /   \       MANDATORY RESTRICTION LANGUAGE:          │
│                  /  🐝 \                                               │
│                 /       \     "DO NOT apply this product while bees    │
│                 \       /      are foraging. DO NOT apply this product │
│                  \     /       to blooming crops or blooming weeds."   │
│                   \   /                                                │
│                    \ /                                                 │
│                                                                        │
│  • Enforceable under FIFRA Section 12(a)(2)(G).                        │
│  • Applies to managed crops during flowering AND understory weeds.     │
│  • Defines application windows (Dusk to Midnight / Sunrise).           │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

3. Formulation Hazard Hierarchy: Microencapsulated Formulations

The physical formulation of a pesticide dictates its relative hazard to foraging bees:

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                   PESTICIDE FORMULATION HAZARD TO BEES                 │
│                                                                        │
│  EXTREME HAZARD:  MICROENCAPSULATED LIQUIDS (ME / CS)                  │
│                   • Microscopic polymer capsules (10–50 µm) match the  │
│                     exact size of pollen grains!                       │
│                   • Carry an electrostatic charge that clings to bee   │
│                     hairs (setae).                                     │
│                   • Foragers pack capsules into pollen baskets         │
│                     (corbiculae), transport them to the hive, and feed │
│                     them to larvae, causing catastrophic brood kill.   │
│                                                                        │
│  HIGH HAZARD:     DUSTS (D) & WETTABLE POWDERS (WP)                    │
│                   • Fine dry particles adhere electrostatically to bee │
│                     hair and are scraped into pollen stores.           │
│                                                                        │
│  MODERATE HAZARD: WATER DISPERSIBLE GRANULES (WDG) & EMULSIFIABLE (EC) │
│                   • Once spray deposits dry thoroughly, foliar contact │
│                     hazard declines significantly.                     │
│                                                                        │
│  LOWEST HAZARD:   GRANULARS (G) & IN-FURROW SOIL APPLICATIONS          │
│                   • No foliar contact; however, systemic active        │
│                     ingredients can still translocate to nectar/pollen.│
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

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3. Oregon Pollinator Protection Regulations & The Wilsonville Precedent

Oregon holds a historic, nationally recognized position in pesticide pollinator regulation following the most significant bumblebee poisoning incident in U.S. history.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│              THE 2013 WILSONVILLE BUMBLEBEE POISONING DISASTER         │
│                                                                        │
│  • LOCATION: Wilsonville, Oregon (Target store parking lot).           │
│  • INCIDENT DATE: June 2013.                                           │
│  • CHEMICAL USED: Dinotefuran (Safari 20 SG - Neonicotinoid).          │
│  • TARGET HOST: 55 flowering European Linden Trees (Tilia cordata).    │
│  • TARGET PEST: Aphids (to prevent cosmetic honeydew on parked cars).  │
│  • TOXICOLOGICAL OUTCOME:                                              │
│    - Over 50,000 native bumblebees (Bombus vosnesenskii) and hundreds  │
│      of honey bee colonies poisoned and killed within 48 hours.        │
│    - Linden blossoms secrete massive nectar volumes; systemic          │
│      dinotefuran saturated nectar and pollen, creating lethal doses.   │
│  • REGULATORY RESPONSE:                                                │
│    - ODA emergency temporary restrictions followed by permanent        │
│      statutory rule: OAR 603-057-0388.                                 │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

1. OAR 603-057-0388: Permanent Statewide Ban on Neonicotinoids on Tilia Species

Following the Wilsonville incident and subsequent bee kill investigations in Hillsboro and Portland, the Oregon Department of Agriculture (ODA) promulgated Oregon Administrative Rule 603-057-0388, creating a permanent, statewide ban on specific neonicotinoid applications:

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                             OREGON ADMINISTRATIVE RULE: OAR 603-057-0388                                 │
│                                                                                                          │
│  RESTRICTED ACTIVE INGREDIENTS (The Four Neonicotinoids):                                                │
│  1. DINOTEFURAN                                                                                          │
│  2. IMIDACLOPRID                                                                                         │
│  3. THIAMETHOXAM                                                                                         │
│  4. CLOTHIANIDIN                                                                                         │
│                                                                                                          │
│  RESTRICTED TARGET HOST SPECIES:                                                                         │
│  • Linden trees, Basswood trees, or any species belonging to the botanical genus Tilia (Tilia spp.)      │
│                                                                                                          │
│  LEGAL SCOPE OF THE PROHIBITION:                                                                         │
│  • No person shall apply any of the four restricted neonicotinoids to any Tilia tree in Oregon.          │
│  • ABSOLUTE BAN: Applies regardless of application method (foliar spray, soil drench, trunk injection,   │
│    bark spray, or chemigation).                                                                          │
│  • YEAR-ROUND BAN: Applies regardless of the time of year or tree phenology (pre-bloom, bloom, post-bloom).│
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

[!CAUTION] Strict Legal Liability Under OAR 603-057-0388 Applying dinotefuran, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, or clothianidin to any linden or basswood tree (Tilia species) anywhere in the State of Oregon is a direct violation of state law, subject to maximum civil penalties, licensing revocation, and liability for all resulting environmental damage. There are zero exceptions or agricultural exemptions to this rule.

2. The Oregon Pollinator Protection Plan (OP3) & Practical Best Management Practices

The Oregon Pollinator Protection Plan (OP3), coordinated by ODA and Oregon State University (OSU) Extension, establishes cooperative operational standards between applicators, crop producers, and beekeepers:

• Mowing Blooming Understory Weeds: In orchards, vineyards, and field edges, applicators must mow or chop blooming dandelions, white clover, and mustards before applying insecticides. Even if the target crop is not in bloom, foraging bees visiting blooming understory weeds will suffer massive contact mortality.
• The Dark Window Application Protocol: All foliar applications of compounds with pollinator hazards must occur strictly during the "dark window"—between two hours before sunset (dusk) and two hours before sunrise (dawn), or when temperatures are below $50^\circ\text{F}\ (10^\circ\text{C})$ when bees are not actively foraging outside the colony.
• 48-Hour Apiary Notification: Applicators should coordinate with local beekeepers registered with the ODA Apiary Program or the Oregon Bee Project, providing at least 48 hours advance notice prior to applying toxic materials within a 3-mile radius of registered hives, allowing beekeepers to cover or temporarily relocate colonies.

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4. Federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) & EPA Bulletins Live! Two

Under Section 7 of the federal Endangered Species Act (ESA), all federal agencies—including the EPA—must ensure that their regulatory actions (including pesticide registrations) do not jeopardize the continued existence of threatened or endangered species or destroy critical habitat.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│               THE FIFRA-ESA REGULATORY ENFORCEABILITY NEXUS            │
│                                                                        │
│  1. PESTICIDE LABEL STATEMENT:                                         │
│     • "Endangered Species Protection Requirements: It is a federal     │
│       offense to use any pesticide in a manner that results in the     │
│       taking of an endangered species. Applicators must comply with    │
│       the limitations contained in the Endangered Species Protection   │
│       Bulletin for the area in which you are applying..."              │
│                                                                        │
│  2. BULLETINS LIVE! TWO (BL2) ONLINE SYSTEM:                           │
│     • Applicators access EPA's web mapping database:                   │
│       https://www.epa.gov/endangered-species/bulletins-live-two-bl2    │
│                                                                        │
│  3. ENFORCEABLE MITIGATION BULLETINS:                                  │
│     • BL2 generates geographically specific Pesticide Use Limitation   │
│       Areas (PULAs) detailing mandatory buffers, rate caps, and timing.│
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

1. Mandatory Applicator Workflow in Bulletins Live! Two (BL2)

When a pesticide label references Endangered Species Protection Bulletins, checking Bulletins Live! Two is not optional—it is a legally binding requirement under FIFRA Section 12(a)(2)(G).

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                         STEP-BY-STEP BULLETINS LIVE! TWO (BL2) COMPLIANCE WORKFLOW                       │
│                                                                                                          │
│  Step 1: ACCESS SYSTEM WITHIN 6 MONTHS                                                                   │
│          • The applicator must access BL2 no more than 6 months prior to the intended application date.  │
│                                                                                                          │
│  Step 2: SELECT APPLICATION MONTH & INTENDED LOCATION                                                    │
│          • Select the exact calendar month of application.                                               │
│          • Enter the EPA Registration Number, active ingredient, or state/county/address/GPS coordinates.│
│                                                                                                          │
│  Step 3: AUDIT INTERACTIVE MAP FOR PESTICIDE USE LIMITATION AREAS (PULAs)                                │
│          • Examine the GIS map. If the application footprint falls inside a shaded PULA polygon:         │
│                                                                                                          │
│  Step 4: DOWNLOAD, PRINT & RETAIN OFFICIAL BULLETIN PDF                                                  │
│          • Download the legally binding PDF Bulletin containing specific local mitigation rules.         │
│          • Retain the printed Bulletin in official pesticide application records for mandatory retention │
│            period (3 years under Oregon commercial applicator recordkeeping rules).                      │
│                                                                                                          │
│  Step 5: EXECUTE ON-FARM PULA MITIGATION MANDATES                                                        │
│          • Implement mandated downwind/downslope vegetative buffers, rate reductions, or nozzle Coarse   │
│            droplet rules prior to pulling the spray trigger.                                             │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

2. Common PULA Mitigation Measures

If an application site falls within a designated Pesticide Use Limitation Area, the enforceable Bulletin will mandate specific operational restrictions:

• Mandatory Non-Spray Downwind Buffers: Establishing 25-foot to 200-foot no-spray buffers between treated crop boundaries and adjacent aquatic or terrestrial listed habitats.
• Runoff Mitigation & Vegetative Filter Strips (VFS): Requiring certified 30-foot vegetative buffers or restricting applications when heavy rainfall ($> 0.5\ \text{inches}$) is forecast within 48 hours.
• Application Rate Reductions: Capping single application rates or maximum seasonal pounds of active ingredient per acre below standard label maximums.
• Mandatory Coarse Droplet Spectra: Mandating ASABE S572 Coarse, Very Coarse, or Ultra Coarse droplet spectra to suppress airborne fines.
• Seasonal Blackout Dates: Complete prohibition of spraying during specific critical life stages (e.g., salmonid egg incubation or vernal pool amphibian breeding windows).

3. Priority ESA-Listed Species of Concern in Oregon

┌──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                             PRIORITY ESA-LISTED SPECIES IN OREGON AGRICULTURAL BASINS                    │
│                                                                                                          │
│  Species Common & Scientific Name    Ecosystem Habitat Zone        Primary Pesticide Vulnerability       │
│  ────────────────────────────────    ──────────────────────        ───────────────────────────────       │
│  Coho Salmon, Chinook Salmon,        Freshwater rivers, streams,   • Extreme sensitivity to Synthetic    │
│  Steelhead Trout, Bull Trout         and estuarine spawning beds   • Pyrethroids, Organophosphates, and  │
│  (Oncorhynchus & Salvelinus spp.)    throughout Oregon basins      • Copper fungicides at ppb levels.    │
│                                                                                                          │
│  Oregon Spotted Frog                 Shallow marshes, slow waters, • Water-soluble herbicides and        │
│  (Rana pretiosa)                     Willamette / Deschutes basins • insecticides disrupting tadpole     │
│                                                                    • development and food webs.          │
│                                                                    •                                     │
│  Fender's Blue Butterfly             Willamette Valley native wet  • Contact insecticides and broadleaf  │
│  (Icaricia icarioides fenderi)       and upland prairie remnants   • herbicides destroying larval host   │
│                                                                    • plants (Kincaid's lupine).          │
│                                                                    •                                     │
│  Marbled Murrelet & Northern         Old-growth coastal and        • Bioaccumulation and prey base       │
│  Spotted Owl (Brachyramphus / Strix) Cascade forest ecosystems     • reduction from forestry pesticides. │
│                                                                    •                                     │
│  Bradshaw's Lomatium &               Willamette Valley wet prairie • Broadleaf herbicide drift and       │
│  Kincaid's Lupine (Endangered Plants)and upland agricultural edges • non-target overspray destruction.   │
└──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

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5. Aquatic Ecosystem Safety, Bioaccumulation & Wildlife Toxicology

Aquatic habitats—including rivers, streams, sloughs, wetlands, and estuaries—are exceptionally vulnerable to pesticide contamination.

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                   BIOACCUMULATION VS. BIOMAGNIFICATION                 │
│                                                                        │
│  BIOACCUMULATION:                                                      │
│  • Uptake and progressive accumulation of a persistent chemical in the │
│    fatty tissues (adipose) of an INDIVIDUAL organism over its lifespan.│
│  • Occurs when chemical intake rate exceeds metabolic excretion rate.  │
│                                                                        │
│  BIOMAGNIFICATION (Trophic Magnification):                             │
│  • The progressive increase in chemical concentration across SUCCESSIVE│
│    TROPHIC LEVELS of a food web.                                       │
│                                                                        │
│       [APEX PREDATORS (Ospreys, Eagles, Orcas)]  ◄── 10,000x Conc.     │
│                          ▲                                             │
│       [PISCIVOROUS FISH (Salmon, Bass)]          ◄── 1,000x Conc.      │
│                          ▲                                             │
│       [FORAGE FISH (Minnows, Smelt)]             ◄── 100x Conc.        │
│                          ▲                                             │
│       [ZOOPLANKTON / INVERTEBRATES]              ◄── 10x Conc.         │
│                          ▲                                             │
│       [PHYTOPLANKTON / WATER / SEDIMENT]         ◄── 1x Baseline       │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

1. Aquatic Toxicity Dynamics: Synthetic Pyrethroids vs. Organophosphates

• Synthetic Pyrethroids (e.g., Bifenthrin, Permethrin, Cyfluthrin): While pyrethroids have low mammalian toxicity ($LD_{50} > 500\ \text{mg/kg}$), they are catastrophically toxic to fish and aquatic arthropods (Daphnia, mayflies, stoneflies) with lethal concentrations ($LC_{50}$) in the parts-per-billion ($\text{ppb}$) or sub-ppb range ($< 1.0\ \mu\text{g/L}$). Pyrethroids disrupt nerve sodium channels in cold-blooded aquatic organisms, causing rapid respiratory paralysis and total food-web collapse.
• Organophosphates & Carbamates: Inhibit acetylcholinesterase in fish and amphibians, causing erratic swimming, spinal deformities, and mortality.
• Copper Compounds: Highly persistent heavy metal algicides/fungicides that accumulate in benthic sediments, exhibiting chronic toxicity to juvenile salmonids and disrupting their olfactory predator-avoidance systems.

2. Bioaccumulation vs. Biomagnification Dynamics

• Bioconcentration Factor (BCF): The ratio of chemical concentration in an aquatic organism's tissues to the chemical concentration in ambient water ($BCF = C_{\text{tissue}} / C_{\text{water}}$). Lipophilic chemicals with high octanol-water partition coefficients ($\log K_{ow} > 4.0$) exhibit massive BCF values ($> 1,000\text{--}50,000$), accumulating in fish lipids.
• Trophic Biomagnification: As illustrated by historical DDT and modern persistent bioaccumulative toxins (PBTs), lipophilic molecules resist metabolic breakdown and magnify exponentially up the trophic hierarchy, causing reproductive failure, eggshell thinning, and neurodevelopmental toxicity in apex raptors and piscivorous marine mammals.

3. Riparian Buffer Architecture & Aquatic Protection Protocols

To comply with label aquatic hazard statements ("This pesticide is toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates. Do not apply directly to water, or to areas where surface water is present"), applicators must execute four core practices:

1. Maintain Mandatory No-Spray Riparian Setbacks: Never spray within the label-mandated distance (typically 25 to 100+ feet) of any stream, ditch, pond, or wetland.
2. Establish Vegetative Filter Strips (VFS): Maintain perennial grass buffers along waterways to filter suspended sediment carrying adsorbed chemicals.
3. Turn Off Manifold Nozzles Near Water: When driving parallel to water bodies, turn off nozzles on the water-facing side of the spray boom or air-blast sprayer.
4. Prevent Concentrated Runoff: Never apply pesticides when soil is saturated or when heavy precipitation is forecast within 24 to 48 hours.