Free Praxis ELA Exam Flashcards

A metaphor directly equates two unlike things ("the fog comes on little cat feet"); a simile flags the comparison with "like" or "as" ("she sang like a nightingale"). Metaphors assert identity and feel bolder and more compressed, while similes openly signal that a figure of speech is at work.

A speaker directly addresses an absent person, an abstraction, or an inanimate object as if it could respond ("O Death, be not proud"). It differs from personification: apostrophe is the act of addressing something not actually present, while personification ascribes human traits to something nonhuman.

Gives human qualities to a nonhuman thing or abstraction ("the wind whispered through the trees"). Its consequence is emotional access — readers relate to the humanlike trait, which is why the device is common in fables, children's literature, and nature poetry.

A paradox is a self-contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth ("Fair is foul, and foul is fair"); an oxymoron compresses the contradiction into a single phrase ("jumbo shrimp," "cruel kindness"). Both disrupt ordinary logic, but oxymoron works at the word level and paradox at the sentence or idea level.

Both substitute one term for another. Metonymy swaps a closely associated concept ("the pen" for writing, "the crown" for monarchy); synecdoche swaps a part for the whole or the whole for a part ("all hands on deck," "wheels" for car). If the substitute is a physical piece of the thing, it is synecdoche; if it is merely associated, it is metonymy.

An indirect reference to another text, person, event, or myth ("he met his Waterloo"). Its power is compression: one phrase invokes a whole background the reader must know to grasp the full meaning. Misreading it as a metaphor misses the cultural shortcut the writer is exploiting.

Foreshadowing hints at events still to come (a loaded gun on the wall in chapter one); flashback interrupts chronological order to reveal earlier events. Both manipulate time, but foreshadowing builds forward suspense while flashback fills in backward context.

Both are 14-line poems in iambic pentameter. The Shakespearean (English) sonnet uses three quatrains and a closing couplet (ABAB CDCD EFEF GG); the Petrarchan (Italian) sonnet uses an octave and a sestet with a turn (volta) between them. The form controls where the argument pivots.

A metrical line of five iambs, each iamb an unstressed-stressed syllable pair (da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM). It mirrors natural English speech rhythm, which is why Shakespeare and Milton used it for long works: it sounds elevated yet conversational.

A three-line Japanese form with a 5-7-5 syllable pattern, traditionally capturing a moment in nature with a seasonal word (kigo). Its discipline forces compression — every word carries weight — which is the opposite of free verse's expansive freedom.

Free verse has no regular meter or rhyme scheme; blank verse has meter (usually iambic pentameter) but no rhyme. A common error is to call any unrhymed poem free verse — unrhymed iambic pentameter is still blank verse, because the meter is there.

Fiction set in a real past period, with the customs, beliefs, and social conditions of that time accurately portrayed even though the plot is invented. The historical accuracy of the background is what separates it from fantasy set in a pseudo-medieval world.

An autobiography covers a life chronologically from birth onward and tends to be public and comprehensive; a memoir focuses on a theme, period, or relationship, drawing on memory and reflection. Memoir privileges voice and meaning over completeness.

A novel tracing a protagonist's psychological and moral growth from youth to adulthood (Great Expectations, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man). The defining arc is formation, not just aging — the character becomes someone qualitatively different by the end.

A novel told through letters, diary entries, newspaper clippings, or other documents (Dracula, The Color Purple). The form produces immediacy and multiple perspectives without an omniscient narrator; the reader assembles the story from fragments.

Late-18th- and early-19th-century movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, imagination, and nature as a reaction against Enlightenment reason. Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley are touchstones; "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" is its aesthetic credo.

Late-19th-century reaction against Romanticism that portrayed ordinary life as it actually was, with believable characters and plausible plots (Dickens, Tolstoy, Twain). Its consequence is social critique grounded in concrete detail rather than idealized heroes.

Early-20th-century break with traditional forms, marked by fragmentation, stream of consciousness, and distrust of inherited narratives (Joyce, Woolf, Eliot). The trauma of World War I is often cited as a catalyst; form itself becomes a statement about a broken world.

1920s flowering of African American literature, art, and music centered in Harlem (Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Countee Cullen). It asserted Black cultural identity as a counter to racist stereotypes and laid groundwork for later civil-rights-era writing.

Mid-20th-century reaction against Modernism's seriousness, embracing irony, metafiction, unreliable narrators, and play with form (Pynchon, Vonnegut). Where Modernism mourned fragmentation, Postmodernism often celebrates or lampoons it.

A dynamic character changes internally (values, beliefs, personality) over the course of a story; a static character does not. Protagonists are usually dynamic, while supporting characters are often static to anchor the world the protagonist leaves or returns to.

A character whose traits contrast with another's to highlight that character's qualities (Laertes as a foil to Hamlet). The foil is not the antagonist — the foil's function is comparison, not opposition, and a single character can have several foils.

First-person uses "I" and confines the reader to the narrator's bias and knowledge; third-person limited uses "he" or "she" but stays inside one character's consciousness. Both restrict information; the difference is whether the narrator is also a character in the story.

The narrator is outside the story and knows the thoughts and feelings of all characters, moving freely among them. The trade-off is breadth versus intimacy — omniscient narrators can feel distant because no single consciousness anchors the reader.

Verbal irony says one thing while meaning another (often sarcastically); dramatic irony is when the audience knows what a character does not. The opening of Pride and Prejudice is verbal irony; Oedipus's search for the killer is dramatic irony.

An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence ("The cat slept"); a dependent clause has a subject and verb but begins with a subordinator ("Because the cat was tired") and cannot stand alone. The distinction controls punctuation — two independent clauses joined by only a comma create a comma splice.

Simple = one independent clause; compound = two or more independent; complex = one independent plus at least one dependent; compound-complex = at least two independent plus at least one dependent. Knowing the structure tells you which conjunctions and punctuation marks are legal.

Active voice has the subject perform the action ("The boy read the book"); passive voice has the subject receive the action ("The book was read by the boy"). Passive voice is not wrong, but it usually hides agency — useful when the actor is unknown or irrelevant, weak when accountability matters.

Used for hypothetical, contrary-to-fact, or wish statements ("If I were you," "I insist that he attend"). The signal is often a base-form verb ("be," "attend") where the indicative would use a different form. It surfaces in formal writing and is fading from casual speech.

Both end in "-ing." A gerund functions as a noun ("Swimming is fun"); a participle functions as an adjective ("the swimming dog"). Same shape, different job — the slot in the sentence decides which it is, not the ending.

A noun or noun phrase that renames the noun beside it, set off by commas when non-essential ("Paris, the capital of France, is lovely"). Essential appositives drop the commas ("the novelist Toni Morrison"); non-essential ones keep them.

Repeating the same grammatical form across items in a series ("to practice hard, to eat well, to rest"). Faulty parallelism — mixing forms ("to practice hard, to eat well, and that they should rest") — jars readers and signals careless editing.

Two independent clauses joined by only a comma ("The sun is shining, it is a beautiful day"). Fixes: a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "so"). The comma alone is too weak to hold two full sentences together.

A modifying phrase with no logical subject to attach to ("After reading the study, the article remains unconvincing" — articles do not read). The fix is to add the actor the phrase describes ("After reading the study, I remain unconvinced").

A modifier placed next to the wrong noun, creating an unintended meaning ("She served sandwiches to the children on paper plates" — are the children on paper plates?). Placement next to the word it actually modifies fixes it.

A semicolon joins two closely related independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction ("The sun is shining; it is a beautiful day"). It is not a substitute for a comma, a colon (which introduces), or a period (which fully separates). Think of it as a soft period.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning (/p/ vs. /b/ in "pat" vs. "bat"); a morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning ("un-" + "believe" + "-able"). Phonemes build words sonically; morphemes build words semantically.

Denotation is the literal dictionary definition; connotation is the emotional or cultural association a word carries. "Cheap" and "inexpensive" share a denotation but differ in connotation — "cheap" implies low quality, "inexpensive" implies value.

The study of word origins and how meanings change over time. Knowing that the Latin root "bene-" means "good" (benefit, benevolent) and "mal-" means "bad" (malevolent, malfunction) unlocks dozens of related words instead of requiring each one to be memorized.

A variety of a language used by a particular group, marked by distinctive vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Dialects are not "incorrect" forms of a language — they are rule-governed systems. The idea that one dialect is "proper" is a social judgment, not a linguistic one.

The level of formality a speaker or writer adopts for a given audience and purpose (formal academic, casual conversation, professional cover letter, text message). Switching register is a skill — slang in a cover letter or legalese in a text both fail because the register mismatches the audience.

Aristotle's three appeals. Ethos appeals to the speaker's credibility ("As a doctor…"); pathos appeals to the audience's emotions (a story about a sick child); logos appeals to logic and evidence (statistics, deductive reasoning). Strong arguments use all three; weak ones lean on just one.

The claim is the assertion; the data (evidence) supports it; the warrant is the assumption connecting data to claim. "Test scores rose, so the new curriculum works" only holds if you assume the curriculum caused the rise (the warrant). Attack the warrant to challenge the argument.

A counterargument is the opposing position itself, raised to be engaged with; a rebuttal is the speaker's reply that challenges or refutes it. Strong persuasive writing presents the counterargument fairly, then rebuts — ignoring the other side looks weak, distorting it looks dishonest.

A logical fallacy that presents only two options when more exist ("Either we cut the arts budget entirely, or the school will go bankrupt"). The trick is forced scarcity — it hides middle-ground choices to pressure agreement.

Arguing that something must be true or right because "everyone" believes it or does it ("Everyone knows this book is dangerous"). Popularity is not evidence of truth or quality; the fallacy substitutes social proof for reasoning.

Revising re-works content, organization, and clarity (moving paragraphs, cutting tangents, sharpening claims); editing fixes grammar, punctuation, spelling, and mechanics. Revising asks "is this the right thing to say?"; editing asks "is this said correctly?" Revise first, then edit, to avoid polishing sentences you will cut.

A primary source is a firsthand account or artifact (a letter, an interview, the original poem); a secondary source interprets or analyzes primary sources (a biography, a textbook chapter, a documentary). Research papers should lean on primary sources for evidence and secondary sources for context.

A single, arguable sentence that states the essay's central claim and previews how it will be supported. "This essay will discuss Gatsby" is not a thesis — it announces a topic. "Fitzgerald uses Gatsby to critique the American Dream" is a thesis because a reasonable reader could disagree.

For a direct quotation from a print book, MLA uses the author's last name and the page number in parentheses (Fitzgerald 87). The citation points the reader to the full Works Cited entry; missing page numbers make verifiable research impossible and risk plagiarism.