Air Safety
Not publishedof exam
Airspace Restrictions
Not publishedof exam
Aviation Regulation
Not publishedof exam
Human Performance Limitations
Not publishedof exam
Operational Procedures
Not publishedof exam
UAS General Knowledge
Not publishedof exam
Privacy and Data Protection
Not publishedof exam
Insurance
Not publishedof exam
Security
Not publishedof exam
Quick Facts
- Exam
- EASA A1/A3
- Questions
- 40 multiple-choice
- Pass
- 75% (30 of 40)
- Subjects
- Nine, no published weights
- Time
- Set by national authority
- Fee
- Varies; some States free
- Validity
- 5 years
- Min age
- 16; States may lower
- Law
- (EU) 2019/947 and 2019/945
- Recognised
- All EASA Member States
- Blueprint
- May 1 2025 consolidation
Three Key Numbers
120 up, 150 out, 50 follow
120 m maximum height150 m in A350 m follow-meMetres above closest ground
Uninvolved Person vs Assembly
Uninvolved person
- Not part of operation
- Unaware of safety briefing
- C0 may overfly them
Assembly
- Too dense to disperse
- Never overflown
- No class exemption
Person conditional; assembly absolute
Open Category Hard Limits
- 120 m
- Max height above surfaceArticle 4
- 25 kg
- Open category MTOM ceiling
- VLOS
- Continuous unaided visual contact
- Assemblies
- Never overfly, any class
- Dangerous goods
- Never carried
- Dropping material
- Prohibited in Open
- Manned aircraft
- Avoid, discontinue if risky
- Rising terrain
- Follows closest ground point
120 m Exceptions
- Tall obstacle
- Over 105 m high
- Obstacle bubble
- Within 50 m horizontally
- Extra height
- 15 m above obstacle top
- Who asks
- Entity responsible for obstacle
- Sailplane
- Under 10 kg MTOM
- Sailplane cap
- 120 m above pilot
- Measurement
- Measure from closest surface
Article 15 Zone vs No-fly
Article 15 zone
- Facilitate, restrict or exclude
- Set per Member State
- May relax Open rules
No-fly label
- Popular shorthand only
- Implies a total ban
- Misses conditional zones
Zones can also permit
Can I Fly Here
- Assembly of people below→Do not fly(No class exempts)
- Uninvolved persons present→C0 may overfly them(C1 must avoid overflight)
- Residential area nearby→Keep 150 m away(A3 horizontal distance)
- Zone requires authorisation→Get prior authorisation(Check national map)
- Zone prohibits drones→Do not fly(Article 15 zone)
- Near an aerodrome→Check zone conditions(Usually restricted)
- Emergency response ongoing→Stay clear(Unless services permit)
- Crossing a border→Recheck national zones(Certificate travels, zones do not)
- Need above 120 m→Specific category(Unless obstacle exception)
- Flying at night→Green flashing light(Allowed in Open)
UAS Geographical Zones
- Definition
- Airspace portion set nationallyArticle 15
- Purposes
- Safety, privacy, security, environment
- Powers
- Prohibit, condition, or authorise
- Class filter
- Allow certain UAS classes
- Feature filter
- Require remote ID
- Publication
- Common unique digital format
- Source
- National authority map
- Exemptions
- Zones may relax rules
- Geo-awareness
- Warns near zone breach
Airspace Hazards and Bans
- Aerodromes
- Usually restricted zones
- Emergency response
- No flight without permission
- Prisons
- National zone plus law
- Military sites
- Criminal, not just aviation
- Certificate scope
- Competency, not airspace access
- Crossing borders
- Zones change per country
- Zone data
- Update before every flight
Class Mass Ladder
250 g, 900 g, 4 kg, 25 kg
C0: under 250 gC1: under 900 gC2: under 4 kgC3/C4: under 25 kg
A1 vs A3
A1
- C0 and C1 drones
- People may be near
- No assemblies ever
A3
- C2, C3, C4 drones
- 150 m from areas
- No one endangered
Near people vs far
Which Subcategory Can I Fly
- Drone marked C0→A1 or A3(No certificate needed)
- Privately built under 250 g→A1 or A3(No certificate needed)
- Drone marked C1→A1 or A3(A1/A3 certificate)
- Drone marked C2→A2 or A3(A2 needs extra exam)
- C2 with A1/A3 only→A3 only(Certificate covers A3)
- Drone marked C3→A3 only(A1/A3 certificate)
- Drone marked C4→A3 only(No remote ID required)
- No class label→A1 under 250 g(Placed on market pre-2024)
- No class label heavier→A3 under 25 kg(A1/A3 certificate)
- MTOM 25 kg or more→Specific category(Outside Open category)
Subcategories A1 A2 A3
- A1
- C0 and C1 drones
- A2
- C2, 30 m distance
- A3
- Far from people
- A1 with C0
- May overfly uninvolved persons
- A1 with C1
- Avoid overflying uninvolved persons
- A2 close limit
- 5 m low-speed mode
- A3 distance
- 150 m from areas
- All subcategories
- Never over assemblies
Subcategory Ladder
A1 over, A2 near, A3 far
A1: C0 and C1A2: C2 onlyA3: C2, C3, C4A3: 150 m away
C0 vs C1
C0
- Under 250 g
- May overfly uninvolved persons
- No certificate needed
C1
- Under 900 g
- Avoid overflying uninvolved persons
- A1/A3 certificate required
Mass sets the duty
Do I Register
- Drone 250 g or more→Register as operator(Article 14(5))
- Drone has a camera→Register as operator(Unless it is a toy)
- Under 250 g, no sensor→No registration needed(Zones and limits still apply)
- Toy under 250 g, camera→No registration needed(Toy Directive exempts sensor)
- Already registered→Display the number(On every such drone)
- C1, C2 or C3→Upload into remote ID(Active and updated)
- Own several drones→One operator number(Same number on all)
- Live in another State→Register where resident(One State only)
Class Marks C0 to C4
- C0
- Under 250 gA1
- C1
- Under 900 gA1
- C1 alternative
- Under 80 J impact
- C2
- Under 4 kgA2
- C3
- Under 25 kgA3
- C3 size
- Under 3 m dimension
- C4
- Under 25 kg, manualA3
- C0/C1 speed
- 19 m/s level flight
- C2 low-speed
- 3 m/s selectable mode
- No class label
- A1 under 250 g
Exam Numbers
40 questions, 75 percent, 5 years
40 multiple-choice questions30 correct to passNine official subjectsValid five years
Registration vs Competency
Operator registration
- Identifies who operates
- Article 14 duty
- Number on the drone
Remote pilot competency
- Proves who can fly
- A1/A3 online exam
- Valid five years
Who owns vs who flies
A1/A3 Certificate Facts
- Exam
- 40 multiple-choice questions
- Pass mark
- 75% overall marks
- Pass count
- 30 of 40
- Validity
- Five years
- Legal name
- Proof of online training
- Where sat
- National authority online portal
- Renewal
- Refresher or re-demonstrate competency
- Expired
- Re-demonstrate competency only
- Not covered
- A2, Specific category
2019/947 vs 2019/945
(EU) 2019/947
- Operations and categories
- Pilot competency
- Registration and zones
(EU) 2019/945
- Products and class marks
- C0 to C6 specs
- Manufacturer duties
Operations vs products
Operator Registration Rules
- Trigger mass
- 250 g or moreArticle 14
- Energy trigger
- Above 80 joules impact
- Sensor trigger
- Camera capturing personal data
- Toy exemption
- Directive 2009/48/EC toys
- Where
- Your residence Member State
- How many
- One Member State only
- Display
- Number on every drone
- Remote ID
- Upload registration number
- Who registers
- The operator, not aircraft
A1/A3 vs A2 Exam
A1/A3 exam
- 40 questions, nine subjects
- Fully online, no practical
- Proof of online training
A2 exam
- At least 30 questions
- Meteorology and flight performance
- Self-practical training first
A1/A3 never unlocks A2
Fitness Check
Alcohol, fatigue, medication, injury, sickness
Duty sits on pilotSelf-assess before flightLand while judgement remains
Human Performance Traps
- Fatigue
- Narrows attention, slows decisions
- Stress
- Causes fixation, stops scanning
- Alcohol
- Never act as pilot
- Medication
- Unfit counts as impairment
- Screen fixation
- Breaks visual line-of-sight
- Sun glare
- Washes out the drone
- Control reversal
- Nose toward you inverts
- Distance limit
- Drone shrinks below resolution
Pre-flight Scan
Zones, site, aircraft, remote ID, payload
Zones: updated informationSite: obstacles and peopleAircraft: fit to flyPayload: within class MTOM
VLOS vs BVLOS
VLOS
- Unaided continuous sight
- Open category standard
- Observer may assist
BVLOS
- Sight is broken
- Specific category only
- Needs authorisation
Open is VLOS only
Pre-flight Duties
- Zone check
- Obtain updated zone information
- Site survey
- Obstacles and uninvolved persons
- Airworthiness
- UAS fit for flight
- Remote ID check
- Active and up-to-date
- Payload check
- Within MTOM and class
- Manual
- Know manufacturer instructions
- Geo-awareness update
- Operator loads location data
- Involved persons
- Brief and get agreement
In-flight Duties
- VLOS
- Keep unaided visual contact
- Scan
- Watch for manned aircraft
- Discontinue
- Stop if risk appears
- Control
- Keep ability to intervene
- Night
- Green flashing light on
- Fitness
- No alcohol or fatigue
- Zones
- Obey zone limitations
- Lost link
- Programmed failsafe runs
VLOS Exceptions
- Follow-me
- Within 50 m
- Follow-me limit
- Subcategory A1 only
- Observer
- Watches drone unaided
- Communication
- Clear and effective link
- Binoculars
- Do not count
- Video feed
- Not visual line-of-sight
- BVLOS
- Specific category only
Drone Systems and Batteries
- LiPo swelling
- Never charge damaged pack
- Cold weather
- Voltage sags, shorter flight
- Storage
- Partial charge, fire-resistant box
- GNSS
- Position hold, return-to-home
- GNSS blind spot
- Sees no obstacles
- Compass error
- Metal and rebar interference
- Propellers
- Chips unbalance the motor
- Payload effect
- Less endurance, more energy
- Failsafe
- Set return altitude high
- Direct remote ID
- Local broadcast to phones
Privacy and GDPR
- Personal data
- Identified or identifiable person
- Examples
- Faces, plates, house fronts
- Purpose limitation
- Use only for collection purpose
- Data minimisation
- Capture only what is needed
- Retention
- Delete when purpose ends
- Publishing
- A separate further use
- Accidental capture
- Still counts as processing
- Complaints
- National data protection authority
- Two regimes
- Aviation and privacy separate
Insurance Rules
- EU rule
- Regulation 785/2004
- Exclusion
- Model aircraft under 20 kg
- Minimum cover
- 750 000 SDR
- Which aircraft
- MTOM under 500 kg
- Reality
- Most States require cover
- Cover type
- Third-party liability
- Not covered
- Your own drone damage
- Hull cover
- Separate product entirely
- Abroad
- Check territorial limits
Security and Reporting
- Occurrence reports
- To competent authority
- Legal basis
- Regulation 376/2014
- Firmware
- Manufacturer sources only
- Credentials
- Protect controller and account
- Rogue drone
- Call police or authority
- Jamming
- Illegal under spectrum law
- Shooting down
- A criminal offence
- Link takeover
- Flight stays your responsibility
Common Traps
Height datum differs
Rule: closest ground surface ≠ Class limiter: take-off point
Certificate is not access
Certificate proves competency ≠ Zones still control access
You register, not the drone
Operator registration is personal ≠ Only certified designs registered
Follow-me is not BVLOS
Follow-me: 50 m, A1 ≠ BVLOS needs Specific category
Insurance floor is 20 kg
EU rule starts at 20 kg ≠ Most States require cover
C0 needs no certificate
C0: read the manual ≠ C1: pass A1/A3 exam
Sub-250 g can still register
Mass triggers at 250 g ≠ A camera triggers regardless
Night flying is allowed
Green flashing light required ≠ Not banned in Open
A3 distance is horizontal
150 m horizontally from areas ≠ Not a height allowance
Assemblies beat every class
No subcategory permits overflight ≠ C0 exemption stops here
Last Minute
- 1.40 questions; 75% pass; 30 correct
- 2.Nine subjects; no published weights
- 3.Certificate valid five years
- 4.120 m above closest ground
- 5.Open category MTOM under 25 kg
- 6.C0 = under 250 g
- 7.C1 = under 900 g
- 8.C2 = under 4 kg
- 9.C3, C4 = under 25 kg
- 10.A1 = C0 and C1
- 11.A3 = C2, C3, C4
- 12.A3: 150 m from built-up areas
- 13.Never overfly assemblies of people
- 14.VLOS always; follow-me 50 m
- 15.Register at 250 g or camera
- 16.Registration number displayed on drone
- 17.Night flight needs green flashing light
- 18.EU insurance rule from 20 kg
- 19.Zones are national; check maps
- 20.Give way to manned aircraft
- 21.GDPR applies to identifiable people
- 22.A2 needs a separate exam
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