Ground-Risk Mitigations
Not publishedof exam
A2 DistancesPeople ClassificationSite PlanningAbnormal Procedures
UAS Flight Performance
Not publishedof exam
Meteorology
Not publishedof exam
Wind and GustsTurbulenceAir DensityVisibility and Icing
Quick Facts
- Qualification
- A2 CofC
- Subcategory
- Near People (A2)
- Entry condition
- Valid Flyer ID
- Theory test
- At least 30 MCQs
- Pass mark
- At least 75%
- Exam timing
- 75 minutes
- Test condition
- Closed book
- Additional needs
- +15 minutes upon request
- Validity
- Five years
- Operation type
- VLOS only
- UK2 normal distance
- At least 30m
- UK2 low-speed distance
- At least 5m
- Legacy A2 distance
- At least 50m
- Open height ceiling
- 120m from closest surface
Five-Metre Evaluation
Weather, Performance, Segregation
Check all threeLow-speed mode stays active
Flyer ID vs Operator ID
Flyer ID
- Shows pilot theory competence
- A2 entry condition
Operator ID
- Identifies responsible operator
- Displayed on aircraft
Pilot and operator may differ
A2 Aircraft Picker
- UK2 mark displayed→Check MTOM below 4kg(Include every payload)
- Valid UK2 confirmed→Use 30m baseline(Never overfly uninvolved people)
- Low-speed mode active→Consider 5m baseline(Evaluate all three conditions)
- C2 mark displayed→Check transition date(Ends 31 December 2027)
- No UK2 or C2→Check market date(Must predate 2026)
- Legacy aircraft confirmed→Check MTOM below 2kg(Use 50m baseline)
- Any A2 condition fails→Use suitable alternative(Usually A3 or Specific)
- Aircraft remains uncertain→Do not claim A2(Verify official documentation)
Qualification Pathway
- Provider
- CAA-approved RAE(PC)
- First credential
- Pass for Flyer ID
- Practical setting
- Far from People A3
- Practical timing
- Complete before additional test
- Practical evidence
- Record flights in log
- Declaration
- Submit written confirmation
- Theory threshold
- At least 75%
- Certificate life
- Five years
Ground-Risk Scan
People, Aircraft, Location
Classify nearby peopleMatch aircraft and site
UK2 vs Legacy Aircraft
UK2
- Below 4kg MTOM
- 30m or eligible 5m
Legacy
- Below 2kg MTOM
- Always at least 50m
Class and market date control
Separation Picker
- Person is uninvolved→Apply aircraft baseline(Measure horizontally)
- Person is involved→Maintain safe control(Consent alone is insufficient)
- People form crowd→Never overfly(Open-wide prohibition)
- UK2 normal mode→Keep at least 30m(Increase when risk rises)
- UK2 low-speed mode→Never closer than 5m(Assess weather and segregation)
- Legacy below 2kg→Keep at least 50m(Low-speed reduction unavailable)
- Flying above baseline→Increase horizontal distance(CAA height-distance guidance)
- Person breaches buffer→Move away or land(Restore safe separation)
Official Test Scope
- Question floor
- Thirty multiple-choice questions
- Ground risk
- Technical and operational mitigations
- Flight performance
- Aircraft capability and limitations
- Meteorology
- Weather effects and decisions
- Exam delivery
- Electronic or paper-based
- Book condition
- Closed book
- Test duration
- Seventy-five minutes
- Additional needs
- Request fifteen extra minutes
- Failed resit
- Uses different questions
- Published weights
- No percentages published
- Minimum age
- None for A2 CofC
- Official provider
- Current RAE approval required
Abnormal Response
Control, Look, Escape, Assess, Record
Protect people firstReview after landing
Normal vs Low-Speed Mode
Normal mode
- 30m UK2 baseline
- Higher kinetic energy
Low-speed mode
- Maximum 3m/s ground speed
- May permit 5m
Five metres needs prior evaluation
Preflight Release
- Qualification is current→Check aircraft eligibility(Match intended subcategory)
- Aircraft is eligible→Check airspace(Include local restrictions)
- Airspace permits flight→Survey operating area(Map people and obstacles)
- Site is controllable→Check forecast(Include gusts and visibility)
- Weather stays suitable→Inspect aircraft(Props, structure, attachments)
- Aircraft passes inspection→Verify software systems(RID, geo-awareness, failsafe)
- Systems are correct→Brief assistants(Signals and contingencies)
- Every check passes→Launch with margins(Reassess continuously)
A2 Distance Rules
- UK2 normal mode
- Keep at least 30m
- UK2 low-speed mode
- May reduce to 5m
- Legacy below 2kg
- Keep at least 50m
- Distance type
- Horizontal from uninvolved person
- A2 overflight
- Never overfly uninvolved people
- Five-metre evaluation
- Weather, performance, area segregation
- Height-distance guide
- Increase distance when higher
- Unsafe conditions
- Increase minimum separation
Involved vs Uninvolved Person
Involved
- Understands operation risks
- Follows pilot instructions
Uninvolved
- Not participating
- Protected by A2 distances
Presence alone gives no consent
Aircraft Eligibility
- UK2 mass
- Below 4kg including payload
- UK2 identification
- Class label displayed
- C2 transition
- Recognised through 31 December 2027
- Legacy mass
- Below 2kg MTOM
- Legacy market date
- Before 1 January 2026
- UK2 Remote ID
- Active and updated
- UK2 geo-awareness
- Active and updated
- Manufacturer instructions
- Know and follow them
Individuals vs Crowd
Individuals
- Can move away quickly
- Apply required separation
Crowd
- Movement is constrained
- Never overfly Open
Mobility defines assembly risk
Open Category Essentials
- Height ceiling
- 120m from closest surface
- Visual condition
- Maintain unaided VLOS
- FPV flight
- Observer maintains direct sight
- Crowd overflight
- Never permitted Open
- Manned aircraft
- Give way immediately
- Flight restriction zone
- Get required permission
- Airspace restrictions
- Check current notices
- Operator label
- Display Operator ID
VLOS vs Camera View
VLOS
- Direct unaided aircraft view
- Shows surrounding airspace
Camera view
- Limited field of view
- Cannot replace VLOS
FPV needs adjacent observer
People and Sites
- Uninvolved person
- Not participating or briefed
- Involved person
- Consents and follows instructions
- Assembly
- People cannot move away
- Pedestrian route
- Avoid predictable movement
- Take-off area
- Secure clear ground
- Contingency area
- Reserve escape space
- Emergency landing
- Choose clear area
- Local controls
- Check bylaws and permission
Technical vs Operational Mitigation
Technical
- Aircraft or system feature
- Reduces likelihood or harm
Operational
- Pilot planning or action
- Controls exposure and response
Strong plans combine both
Preflight Ground Risk
- Site survey
- Find people and obstacles
- Weather check
- Compare forecast with limits
- Airframe
- Inspect damage and security
- Propellers
- Secure, correct, undamaged
- Software
- Use current manufacturer version
- Geo-awareness
- Update restriction data
- Battery
- Confirm sufficient safe charge
- Height limiter
- Set when required
A2 vs A3
A2
- Near People operations
- Requires A2 CofC
A3
- Far from People
- Provides training setting
Use A3 when A2 fails
Inflight Ground Risk
- Person incursion
- Move away or land
- Area exit
- Recover immediately
- Aircraft incursion
- Descend or land clear
- Other UAS
- Avoid and preserve separation
- Positioning loss
- Take manual control
- Link loss
- Follow tested failsafe
- Low battery
- Land with reserve
- Post-flight review
- Record defects and occurrences
Performance Margin
Load, Interference, Forecast, Temperature
Check mass and signalsCheck wind and density
GNSS vs Compass
GNSS
- Supports position hold
- Loss permits drifting
Compass
- Supports heading reference
- Metal can distort it
Different sensors, different failures
Abnormal Flight Response
- GNSS position fails→Control drift manually(Move clear of people)
- Compass warning appears→Avoid aggressive commands(Land safely if needed)
- Control link fails→Monitor configured failsafe(Keep escape area clear)
- RTH path becomes unsafe→Resume manual control(Only when link permits)
- Battery warning appears→Return immediately(Land with reserve)
- Manned aircraft approaches→Descend or land(Always give way)
- Uninvolved person enters→Increase separation(Land when necessary)
- Control cannot recover→Choose safest termination(Minimise ground harm)
Mass and Balance
- Extra mass
- Raises required thrust
- Extra payload
- Shortens flight endurance
- Higher speed
- Lengthens stopping distance
- Higher mass
- Raises impact energy
- Centre of gravity
- Keep within manufacturer limits
- Imbalanced payload
- Reduces control margin
- Payload compatibility
- Check mounting and power
- MTOM
- Includes battery and payload
RTH Setup
Home, Obstacles, Margin, Escape
Confirm current home pointKeep route below ceiling
Battery and Power
- Cold battery
- Less usable capacity
- Voltage sag
- Power drops under load
- Battery reserve
- Protects landing margin
- Storage charge
- Follow manufacturer setting
- Swollen battery
- Isolate and retire
- Smoking battery
- Disconnect and clear area
- Battery warning
- Return and land early
- Payload power
- Include in endurance plan
Control and Failsafes
- Control link
- Pilot commands aircraft
- Link interference
- Can trigger failsafe
- Failsafe choice
- RTH, hover, or land
- Failsafe source
- Manufacturer instructions control
- RTH obstacle risk
- Route may cross hazards
- Manual proficiency
- Controls drift after automation
- Orientation loss
- Use practised recovery
- Flyaway prevention
- Check wind, link, navigation
Mean Wind vs Gust
Mean wind
- Average over reporting period
- Sets sustained workload
Gust
- Brief peak speed
- Can exceed control margin
Plan against the stronger value
Weather Go-No-Go
- Forecast unavailable→Delay the flight(Unknown risk remains)
- Gusts exceed rating→Do not launch(Low-speed mode cannot fix)
- Wind approaches rating→Add return margin(Plan upwind recovery)
- Obstacles stand upwind→Avoid lee wake(Expect rotor turbulence)
- Visibility limits VLOS→Do not launch(Camera view cannot substitute)
- Rain threatens electronics→Follow manufacturer limits(Land before exposure)
- Hot and heavily loaded→Reduce payload or postpone(Protect thrust margin)
- Conditions deteriorate→Return and land(Preserve battery reserve)
Wind and Turbulence
- Mean wind
- Average reported speed
- Gust
- Short stronger wind
- Wind gradient
- Wind often strengthens aloft
- Upwind return
- Needs speed and battery
- Mechanical turbulence
- Obstacles break smooth airflow
- Lee side
- Expect turbulent wake
- Wind limit
- Use manufacturer maximum
- Gust exceeds limit
- Do not launch
Density and Temperature
- Warm air
- Lower density
- Humid air
- Slightly lower density
- High terrain
- Lower air density
- Low density
- Reduces available thrust
- Hot heavy launch
- Needs extra performance margin
- Cold conditions
- Reduce battery output
- Sun heating
- Can create thermals
- Thermal turbulence
- Creates vertical motion
Visibility and Moisture
- Fog
- Can prevent VLOS
- Low cloud
- Reduces visual margin
- Rain
- Harms sight and electronics
- Freezing moisture
- Can ice propellers
- Wet airframe
- Adds mass and risk
- Sun glare
- Can obscure aircraft
- Deteriorating weather
- Land before VLOS fails
- Weather sources
- Compare forecast and observations
Common Traps
Thirty Is Minimum
Providers may set more questions ≠ Seventy-five percent still governs
Five Metres Is Conditional
Requires UK2 or transitional C2 ≠ Low-speed mode must be active
Legacy Gets No Reduction
Below 2kg is required ≠ Fifty metres still applies
Guidance Does Not Replace Baseline
Distance minima remain mandatory ≠ Height may demand more distance
No Uninvolved Overflight
A2 permits near, not over ≠ Altitude cannot cure overflight
Class Mark Matters
Weight alone cannot create UK2 ≠ C2 transition ends in 2027
Automation Is Not Assurance
GNSS loss permits drift ≠ RTH may cross obstacles
Operator Is Not Flyer
Flyer ID proves competence ≠ Operator ID identifies responsibility
Last Minute
- 1.Carry current Flyer ID
- 2.Carry current A2 CofC
- 3.Verify aircraft class and MTOM
- 4.Display correct Operator ID
- 5.Check airspace and restrictions
- 6.Survey people and escape areas
- 7.Compare gusts with aircraft limits
- 8.Inspect props and attachments
- 9.Confirm battery and reserve
- 10.Update Remote ID and geo-awareness
- 11.Confirm home point and failsafe
- 12.Set safe RTH height
- 13.Brief observer and assistants
- 14.Apply correct horizontal baseline
- 15.Never overfly uninvolved people
- 16.Land before margins disappear
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