6.3 Sentence Boundaries, Clauses, and Punctuation

6.3 Sentence Boundaries, Clauses, and Punctuation

Every sentence-correction item on an entrance test begins with the same audit: count the independent clauses, then check that the punctuation joining them is legal. This section covers clause structure, the boundary errors examiners reuse most, and the punctuation marks that separate a clean sentence from a flagged one. Agreement and tense are handled in 6.1; pronouns, modifiers, and parallelism are handled in 6.2.

Clauses and the Four Sentence Types

A clause contains a subject and a finite verb. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent (subordinate) clause cannot, because it opens with a subordinating conjunction — although, because, since, when, while, if, unless, after, before, until, whereas, even though — or with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, whose, which, or that.

Fragments

A sentence fragment is punctuated as a sentence but is not one. Fragments occur in three ways:

1. A dependent clause left alone. Because the shuttle broke down along Taft Avenue. Attach it: Because the shuttle broke down along Taft Avenue, we arrived an hour late.
2. A phrase with no finite verb — participial, infinitive, prepositional, or appositive. Hoping to qualify for the scholarship. A tradition observed every February. Attach each to a full clause.
3. A missing subject or a missing auxiliary verb. The students in the covered court rehearsing for the acquaintance party has no complete verb; write were rehearsing.

Fragments are a legitimate stylistic device in fiction and dialogue, but on a grammar test they are marked wrong.

Run-ons and Comma Splices

• A fused (run-on) sentence joins two independent clauses with no punctuation at all: The power went out the generator started automatically.
• A comma splice joins them with only a comma: The power went out, the generator started automatically.

There are four standard repairs:

1. Period. The power went out. The generator started automatically.
2. Semicolon. The power went out; the generator started automatically.
3. Semicolon + conjunctive adverb + comma. The power went out; however, the generator started automatically. Conjunctive adverbs include however, therefore, moreover, consequently, nevertheless, otherwise, meanwhile, furthermore, instead, and thus.
4. Comma + coordinating conjunction. The seven coordinating conjunctions are the FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. The power went out, but the generator started automatically.

A fifth option is to subordinate one clause: Although the power went out, the generator started automatically. The single most tested trap is treating a conjunctive adverb as if it were a FANBOYS conjunction. The power went out, however, the generator started automatically is still a comma splice.

Comma Rules

• Items in a series. The care package contained bottled water, canned goods, and a blanket. The final serial comma is standard in Philippine and American school usage; whichever convention you follow, be consistent.
• After an introductory element. After the orientation, the freshmen toured the campus. However, the schedule remained unchanged.
• Around non-restrictive (non-essential) elements. Ms. Villaruz, who teaches physics at the senior high school, wrote the recommendation letter. Remove the clause and the sentence still identifies her. Restrictive information takes no commas: The teacher who wrote my recommendation letter is retiring.
• Between coordinate adjectives. If you can insert and between them or reverse them, use a comma: a long, humid afternoon. Cumulative adjectives take none: three wooden classroom chairs, a bright yellow tricycle.

That versus which. Use that with no commas for restrictive information that identifies the noun, and which inside paired commas for non-restrictive information that merely adds detail.

• The building that houses the library is closed for repairs. (tells you which building)
• The old annex, which houses the library, is closed for repairs. (there is only one annex)

Three comma errors examiners plant deliberately: a comma between a subject and its verb (The students who arrived late, were not admitted), a comma before a that-clause (The proctor announced, that time was up), and a comma before and when the two verbs share one subject (She reviewed her notes, and slept early).

Semicolons and Colons

A semicolon does two jobs. It joins two closely related independent clauses, and it separates list items that already contain commas: The delegates came from Cebu City, Cebu; Bacolod City, Negros Occidental; and Legazpi City, Albay. A semicolon is wrong before a dependent clause or a phrase (The examination was moved; because of the typhoon) and wrong when introducing a list (Bring the following; a valid ID, a receipt, and a pen).

A colon introduces a list, an explanation, or a quotation, but only after a complete independent clause.

• Correct: Bring three things to the orientation: a valid identification card, the payment receipt, and a ballpen.
• Correct, for emphasis: She had only one goal: a slot in the engineering program.
• Wrong: The requirements are: a valid ID, a receipt, and a pen. Never place a colon between a verb and its complement; delete it.
• Wrong: Bring items such as: an identification card and a receipt. No colon after such as, including, or consists of.

Apostrophes

Never use an apostrophe to form a plural: write three IDs, the 1990s, two CDs. The four highest-frequency confusions are its / it's, your / you're, their / there / they're, and whose / who's.

Quotation Marks, Hyphens, and Capitalization

Under the American conventions used in Philippine schools, periods and commas go inside the closing quotation mark, while semicolons and colons go outside.

• Ms. Reyes said, "The results are ready."
• He called the turnout a "milestone"; the panel disagreed.
• A question mark goes inside if the quotation is the question (She asked, "When is the deadline?") and outside if the whole sentence is (Did she really say "the deadline is final"?).
• Titles of short works — poems, articles, songs — take quotation marks; books and films are italicized.

Hyphens join a compound modifier that comes before its noun: a well-known author, a 10-item quiz, a computer-based examination, a two-hour session. After the noun, drop the hyphen: The author is well known. Never hyphenate after an -ly adverb (a highly motivated student, a carefully written essay). Hyphenate spelled-out numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and fractions used as modifiers (twenty-three applicants, a two-thirds majority), and use a suspended hyphen in first- and second-year students.

Capitalization rules worth memorizing:

• Proper nouns and proper adjectives: Adamson University, Manila, Filipino, Vincentian.
• A title before a name, but not after it or standing alone: Dean Santos versus Roberto Santos, the dean of the college.
• Family words used as names: I asked Tita Baby versus my tita.
• Regions but not directions: the Visayas, Southern Luzon versus drive south for two hours.
• Languages and specific course titles, but not general subjects: Filipino, English, General Physics 1 versus she struggled with physics.
• Days, months, and holidays, but not seasons: Monday, August, Rizal Day versus the rainy season.
• The first word of a sentence and of a direct quotation.

Annotated Exemplars

Exemplar A. Because the enrollment period was extended, many students who had missed the first deadline, were able to file their forms, the registrar however warned that no further extension would be granted.

Three faults: a lone comma cutting the subject many students … deadline from its verb were able; a comma splice at their forms, the registrar; and the interrupter however left unpunctuated. Revised: Because the enrollment period was extended, many students who had missed the first deadline were able to file their forms; the registrar, however, warned that no further extension would be granted.

Exemplar B. the deans office released a two page memo about the schools new attendance policy, its effective on monday.

Seven faults: no opening capital; deans needs a possessive apostrophe (dean's); two page is a compound modifier before a noun and needs a hyphen; schools needs school's; the comma before its effective splices two independent clauses; its should be the contraction it's; and monday is a proper noun. Revised: The dean's office released a two-page memo about the school's new attendance policy; it's effective on Monday. In formal writing, spell the contraction out: it is effective on Monday.

What Examiners Test

• A dependent clause or participial phrase punctuated as a full sentence.
• However, therefore, and consequently used with commas alone between two clauses.
• Commas placed around a clause that is actually essential, which changes the meaning.
• Which used restrictively, or that set off by commas.
• A colon dropped in after are, include, or such as.
• Its written for it's, and apostrophes used to form plurals.
• A missing hyphen in a compound modifier standing before its noun.
• School subjects, seasons, or compass directions capitalized for no reason.