6.2 Pronouns, Modifiers, and Parallel Structure

6.2 Pronouns, Modifiers, and Parallel Structure

Three error families dominate the usage items on an entrance test, and they share one cure: every word must point clearly and grammatically at the word it belongs to. A pronoun must point at the right noun and wear the right case, a modifier must sit beside the word it describes, and items joined by a conjunction must share the same shape. Agreement and tense are handled in 6.1; punctuation is handled in 6.3.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun stands in for a noun called its antecedent, and it must match that noun in number, person, and gender.

• Singular antecedent, singular pronoun: Each of the scholars must renew his or her clearance every semester. Recasting into the plural is usually cleaner: All scholars must renew their clearances every semester.
• Antecedents joined by and → plural: Nikko and Trina submitted their portfolios.
• Antecedents joined by or or nor → match the nearer one: Either the twins or Marisol will bring her guitar.
• A collective antecedent acting as one unit → singular: The committee released its findings.

Case: Subjective, Objective, Possessive

Four tests settle almost every case item:

1. Drop the partner. The coach chose Ramil and (I / me). Remove Ramil and: The coach chose me. So write Ramil and me.
2. A preposition takes the objective. between you and me, among us students, to Jomar and her.
3. An appositive copies the noun's role. We students petitioned the dean (subject) but The dean addressed us students (object).
4. Finish the comparison. Karlo studies harder than I (do). The noise distracted Karlo more than me means more than it distracted me. Both are correct; the case decides the meaning.

Two refinements: a linking verb keeps the subjective case in formal writing (It was she who filed the appeal), and a pronoun before a gerund is possessive (The dean approved my transferring to the morning section).

Who versus whom

Replace the blank with he or him. If he fits, use who; if him fits, use whom.

• Nadine is the student ______ won the essay contest. → he won → who
• Nadine is the student ______ the panel selected. → the panel selected him → whom

Two traps. An inserted I think changes nothing: in the applicant who I think deserves the slot, who is the subject of deserves. And whoever / whomever is decided by its job inside its own clause: in Give the packet to whoever answers the door, whoever is the subject of answers, while the entire clause is the object of to.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Forms ending in -self or -selves have exactly two legal jobs.

• Reflexive — the object is the same person as the subject: Trina taught herself basic calculus.
• Intensive — pure emphasis, and removable without damage: The registrar herself signed the form.

Anything else is wrong. Please send the documents to Ms. Bautista or myself must be …or me, because no earlier I exists in that clause for myself to reflect. Using myself to sound formal is one of the most reliably tested usage errors. Hisself and theirselves are not standard English.

Ambiguous, Vague, and Missing Antecedents

• Ambiguous — two possible referents: When Dr. Cruz consulted Dean Santos, he said the budget had been approved. Who spoke? Name the person: When Dr. Cruz consulted Dean Santos, the dean said that the budget had been approved.
• Vague broad reference — this, that, which, or it pointing at a whole idea instead of a noun: The team missed three deadlines, and this frustrated the adviser. Give the pointer a noun: …and this lapse frustrated the adviser.
• Missing antecedent: In the article, it says that enrollment rose → The article says that enrollment rose. A possessive cannot serve as an antecedent either: In Rizal's novel, he criticized colonial society → In his novel, Rizal criticized colonial society.
• Shifting person — choose you, one, or a third-person noun and stay with it: If a student wants a slot in the honors class, you must maintain a 90 average → …he or she must maintain a 90 average, or If students want a slot in the honors class, they must maintain a 90 average.

Modifier Placement

A modifier describes another element and must sit next to it. The volunteer handed sandwiches to the evacuees wrapped in foil accidentally wraps the evacuees; write The volunteer handed the evacuees sandwiches wrapped in foil.

Limiting words: only, almost, just, nearly, even, hardly, merely

Place a limiting word immediately before what it limits. Each position produces a different sentence.

Squinting modifiers

A modifier parked between two elements can look in either direction. Students who review frequently improve their scores — do they review frequently, or do they frequently improve? Move it: Students who frequently review improve their scores, or Students who review improve their scores frequently.

Dangling modifiers

An introductory phrase attaches itself to the first noun after the comma. That noun must be the one performing the introductory action.

• Dangling: Having submitted the requirements, the enrollment slip was released. A slip submits nothing.
• Fixed: Having submitted the requirements, Jomar received his enrollment slip.
• Dangling: To qualify for the scholarship, a 90 average is required.
• Fixed: To qualify for the scholarship, an applicant must maintain a 90 average.
• Second cure — expand the phrase into a full clause: After Jomar submitted the requirements, the registrar released his enrollment slip.

Parallel Structure

Elements joined by a conjunction must share the same grammatical form.

• In a series: The workshop taught us to outline an essay, to draft a thesis statement, and to revise for concision. Faulty versions swap forms midway (…drafting a thesis statement, and how to revise…).
• In comparisons: Reviewing with a group is more productive than studying alone, not …than to study alone.
• With correlative pairs — either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, both…and, whether…or — the structure after the first half must match the structure after the second. She is not only fluent in Filipino but also in Spanish pairs an adjective phrase with a prepositional phrase; write She is fluent not only in Filipino but also in Spanish. The partners are fixed: neither takes nor (never or), and not only takes but also (never but too).

Faulty and Illogical Comparison

Compare things of the same kind by adding a possessive or the phrase that of / those of.

• Wrong: Her scores are higher than Maria. Right: Her scores are higher than Maria's.
• Wrong: The climate of Baguio is cooler than Manila. Right: The climate of Baguio is cooler than that of Manila.
• Wrong: Rafael scored higher than any student in his section — he is one of them. Right: …than any other student in his section.
• Incomplete: Our laboratories are better equipped. Better equipped than what? Finish the comparison.

Annotated Exemplars

Exemplar A. Walking briskly toward the registrar, the humid air made Liza and I regret our long-sleeved uniforms.

Two faults. First, the introductory phrase dangles: air cannot walk, yet the humid air is the noun after the comma. Second, Liza and I is the object of made; dropping the partner gives made me regret, so it must be Liza and me. Revised: As Liza and I walked briskly toward the registrar, the humid air made us regret our long-sleeved uniforms.

Exemplar B. The review center promises smaller classes, that its coaches are experienced, and higher scores than other centers.

Two faults. First, the series mixes a noun phrase, a that-clause, and another noun phrase. Second, higher scores than other centers compares scores with centers. Revised: The review center promises smaller classes, more experienced coaches, and higher scores than those of other centers.

What Examiners Test

• A pronoun with two possible antecedents, or with none at all.
• Between you and I and other objective-case slips after prepositions.
• Myself used as a polite substitute for me or I.
• Who where the clause needs whom, and whom where the clause needs who.
• A stray only placed one word too early.
• An introductory -ing, -ed, or to-phrase whose doer never appears.
• A three-item list whose third item changes grammatical form.
• A comparison missing an apostrophe, that of, or the word other.