Sociology: Society, Community, Family, Social Groups, Stratification & Social Problems
Key Takeaways
Auguste Comte coined the term sociology and is called the father of sociology.
Charles Horton Cooley described the primary group—small, intimate, face-to-face groups such as the family and close friends.
Caste is a closed system of stratification based on birth, while class is an open system based mainly on income, education and occupation.
Under the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006, the minimum legal age of marriage in India is 21 years for men and 18 years for women.
William Ogburn used the term cultural lag for the delay between change in material culture and adjustment of non-material culture.
Sociology is the scientific study of society, social relationships and social behaviour. Health and illness are shaped by family structure, caste and class, culture, poverty and gender, so sociology helps a nurse understand why a family delays hospital delivery or why a patient stops treatment.
Auguste Comte coined the word "sociology" and is called the father of sociology. Émile Durkheim (social facts, suicide study), Max Weber (social action, bureaucracy) and Karl Marx (class conflict) are other founders often asked in exams.
1. Basic Concepts
| Concept | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Society | A web of social relationships among people who share a territory and culture | Indian society |
| Community | A group living in a definite area with a sense of belonging ("we-feeling") | A village in Ganjam district |
| Association | A group organised for a specific purpose | Trained Nurses' Association of India (TNAI) |
| Institution | An established set of norms and procedures | Marriage, family, education, religion |
| Social role and status | Status is a position; role is the behaviour expected of it | Ward sister (status) supervising staff (role) |
Rural and urban communities
| Feature | Rural | Urban |
|---|---|---|
| Size and density | Small, sparse | Large, dense |
| Occupation | Mainly agriculture | Industry, services |
| Relationships | Primary, personal | Secondary, impersonal |
| Social control | Informal (family, panchayat) | Formal (law, police) |
| Social mobility | Low | High |
| Health problems | Malnutrition, communicable disease, poor access | Lifestyle diseases, pollution, slum-related illness |
2. Social Groups
- Primary group (C. H. Cooley): small, face-to-face, intimate and lasting—the family, close friends, peer group. It shapes personality.
- Secondary group: large, formal, goal-oriented, impersonal—a hospital staff, trade union, political party.
- In-group and out-group (W. G. Sumner): "we" versus "they".
- Reference group: a group whose standards a person adopts (student nurses modelling themselves on senior nurses).
3. Family and Marriage
The family is the basic unit of society and the main agent of care during illness.
Types of family
- By structure: nuclear (parents and unmarried children), joint (several generations or brothers' families sharing a home, kitchen and property), extended.
- By authority: patriarchal or matriarchal.
- By descent: patrilineal or matrilineal.
- By residence: patrilocal or matrilocal.
Functions of the family
Reproduction, socialization, economic support, emotional support, care of the sick and elderly, and transmission of culture.
Forms of marriage
- Monogamy: one spouse (the legal norm for most Indians).
- Polygamy: polygyny (one man, several wives) and polyandry (one woman, several husbands).
- Endogamy: marrying within one's caste or group. Exogamy: marrying outside a group, such as one's own gotra.
- Legal age: the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 sets 21 years for men and 18 years for women. Early marriage raises the risk of adolescent pregnancy, anemia and maternal death.
Changes in the Indian family
Joint families are giving way to nuclear families because of urbanisation, migration and women's employment. This reduces built-in support for the elderly and for new mothers, which nurses must plan for at discharge.
4. Socialization
Socialization is the lifelong process by which a person learns the norms, values and roles of society.
- Primary socialization: in early childhood, mainly by the family.
- Secondary socialization: school, peers, workplace and media.
- Professional socialization: the process by which a student becomes a nurse, absorbing the values and conduct of the profession.
5. Social Stratification and Mobility
| Basis | Caste | Class |
|---|---|---|
| Membership | By birth | By achievement (income, education, occupation) |
| System | Closed | Open |
| Mobility | Very limited | Possible |
| Marriage | Traditionally endogamous | No fixed rule |
- Social mobility: vertical (up or down the hierarchy) or horizontal (change of position at the same level).
- Socio-economic status affects nutrition, housing, sanitation, health-care access and disease rates. Scales such as the modified Kuppuswamy scale use education, occupation and family income.
6. Culture and Social Change
- Culture is the shared way of life—beliefs, values, customs, language, food habits and knowledge.
- Material culture: tangible objects (instruments, buildings).
- Non-material culture: ideas, beliefs, norms.
- Cultural lag (William F. Ogburn): non-material culture changes more slowly than material culture—for example, acceptance of institutional delivery lagging behind the availability of hospitals.
- Ethnocentrism: judging other cultures by one's own standards. Nurses must provide culturally sensitive care—respect food taboos, modesty and religious practices while explaining health risks.
- Acculturation and assimilation describe adopting traits of another culture.
- Social change is driven by technology, education, urbanisation, industrialisation and legislation.
Social control
- Informal: customs, folkways, mores, religion, public opinion.
- Formal: laws, police, courts, administrative rules.
7. Social Problems and Health
| Problem | Health impact | Relevant law or programme |
|---|---|---|
| Poverty | Malnutrition, communicable disease, poor access to care | Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY, public distribution system |
| Alcoholism and drug abuse | Liver disease, accidents, domestic violence | De-addiction centres; NDPS Act, 1985 |
| Dowry | Domestic violence, dowry deaths | Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 |
| Domestic violence | Injuries, depression, pregnancy complications | Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 |
| Child labour | Stunted growth, injury, missed schooling | Child and Adolescent Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act |
| Child marriage | Adolescent pregnancy, anemia, maternal death | Prohibition of Child Marriage Act, 2006 |
| Unemployment | Stress, depression, substance use | Skill and employment schemes |
| Stigma (HIV, TB, leprosy, mental illness) | Delayed care, poor adherence | HIV and AIDS (Prevention and Control) Act, 2017 |
8. Sociology in Nursing Practice
- Assess the family as a unit of care: who makes health decisions, who will give care at home.
- Recognise social determinants (income, education, housing, caste, gender) behind illness.
- Use community leaders, self-help groups, ASHAs and Anganwadi workers to change behaviour.
- Practise non-discrimination: every patient receives equal care regardless of caste, class, religion, gender or HIV status.
A ward nurse explains that a patient's family, close friends and neighbours are the people who most influence his health habits. Which sociological concept, described by Charles Horton Cooley, does this illustrate?
Out-group
Reference group
Primary group
Secondary group
Which statement correctly distinguishes caste from class as systems of social stratification?
Caste is an open system based on achievement; class is a closed system based on birth
Caste is closed and based on birth; class is open and based on achievement
Class membership is inherited at birth, while caste depends on occupation
Both caste and class are closed systems that permit no social mobility
Hospitals and skilled birth attendants are available in a district, but many families still prefer home deliveries because of long-held beliefs. Which concept explains this delay?
Ethnocentrism
Social mobility
Cultural lag
Acculturation
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