3.2 Relative Clauses & Participle Clauses
Key Takeaways
Defining relative clauses restrict noun identity without commas, whereas non-defining relative clauses provide non-essential parenthetical detail enclosed in commas and forbid the use of 'that'.
Relative pronouns acting as clause objects may be freely omitted in defining contact clauses, but subject relative pronouns must always be retained.
Fronted prepositions use whom for people and which for things in these formal relative-clause patterns; a stranded preposition is also grammatical.
An -ing phrase can modify a noun actively, a past participle can modify it passively, and having done links an earlier action to a main clause.
An introductory participle clause normally shares its implied subject with the main clause; check for dangling modifiers.
3.2 Relative Clauses & Participle Clauses
A relative clause identifies or adds information about a noun. Participle clauses can shorten descriptions or link actions; check the subject and time relationship before treating two forms as equivalent.
1. Defining vs. Non-Defining Relative Clauses
The distinction between defining (restrictive) and non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses governs punctuation, relative pronoun selection, and semantic interpretation.
| Feature | Defining (Restrictive) Relative Clauses | Non-Defining (Non-Restrictive) Relative Clauses |
|---|---|---|
| Punctuation | No commas surrounding the clause. | Mandatory commas setting off the parenthetical information. |
| Semantic Role | Essential to identify the antecedent noun; without it, the sentence meaning is incomplete. | Non-essential; adds supplementary information about an already identified noun. |
| Permissible Pronouns (Things) | that, which | which (never that) |
| Permissible Pronouns (People) | who, whom, that | who, whom (never that) |
| Pronoun Omission | Omissible when functioning as the grammatical object of the clause. | Never omissible under any circumstances. |
Semantic Impact in Corporate Contexts
Consider the operational and financial implications of comma placement:
- Defining (No commas): The manufacturing facilities that failed safety audits were immediately closed.
- Meaning: The clause identifies which facilities were closed. It does not tell us the later status of any other facilities.
- Non-Defining (Commas): The manufacturing facilities, which failed safety audits, were immediately closed.
- Meaning: All the facilities being referred to failed the audits and were closed. It need not refer to every facility the company owns.
Warning
The 'That' Restriction: In standard English grammar, the relative pronoun that cannot be used in a non-defining relative clause set off by commas. Incorrect: The annual report, that was released yesterday, highlighted strong growth.
- Correct: The annual report, which was released yesterday, highlighted strong growth.
2. Contact Clauses: The Mechanics of Relative Pronoun Omission
A contact clause is a defining relative clause in which the relative pronoun is omitted. Omission depends entirely on whether the pronoun serves as a subject or an object within its relative clause.
The Object Position Rule
When the relative pronoun represents the grammatical direct object of the relative clause verb, it may be omitted with zero change in meaning:
- Full Form: The vendor whom / that the procurement team selected offered the best credit terms.
- Contact Clause (Omitted): The vendor [Ø] the procurement team selected offered the best credit terms.
The Subject Position Rule
When the relative pronoun represents the grammatical subject of the relative clause verb, it cannot be omitted without converting the verb into a participle:
- Correct: We interviewed the systems architect who designed the enterprise database. Incorrect (Omission error): * We interviewed the systems architect designed the enterprise database.
- Different construction: We interviewed the systems architect designing the enterprise database. This is grammatical, but it describes work in progress and does not necessarily preserve the completed meaning of designed.
The Resumptive (Redundant) Pronoun Trap
A frequent candidate trap is including both the relative pronoun and an unnecessary personal pronoun referring back to the same antecedent: Incorrect: The contract that the legal team reviewed it contained several ambiguous clauses.
- Correct: The contract that the legal team reviewed contained several ambiguous clauses.
- Correct (Contact clause): The contract the legal team reviewed contained several ambiguous clauses.
3. Preposition Placement: Formal Fronting vs. Informal Stranding
In informal English, prepositions are often placed at the end of relative clauses (known as preposition stranding). Prepositions can also appear before a relative pronoun in a more formal construction (preposition fronting). Stranding remains grammatical; register and the supplied sentence determine the choice.
Informal / Stranded: The compliance standard which the firm adhered to...
Formal / Fronted: The compliance standard to which the firm adhered...
| Structural Constraint | Rule & Explanation | Exemplary Corporate Application |
|---|---|---|
| Whom after Prepositions | When referring to human persons, the objective pronoun whom must follow a fronted preposition. Never use who. | The portfolio manager to whom the board entrusted capital executed the strategy. |
| Which after Prepositions | When referring to inanimate objects or organizations, which must follow a fronted preposition. | The framework under which the joint venture operates was signed in 2024. |
| Prohibition of 'That' | The relative pronoun that can never be preceded by a preposition in a relative clause. | Incorrect: The policy in that we invested... / Correct: The policy in which we invested... |
| Possessive 'Whose' | Whose indicates possession for both persons and corporate entities, organizations, or inanimate structures. | The multinational conglomerate whose subsidiaries were divested preserved liquidity. |
Note
The sequence in that exists in English, but in a clause such as the following it functions as a conjunction meaning because or inasmuch as (The proposal is advantageous in that it reduces operational expenditure). It can never serve as a relative pronoun modifying a preceding noun antecedent.
4. Reduced Relative Clauses & Participle Clauses
Participle phrases can modify a noun or relate an action to the main clause. Introductory having done phrases express an earlier action; they are not simply reduced relative clauses.
Reduction of Active Relative Clauses to Present Participles (-ing)
Active relative clauses are reduced by removing the relative pronoun (and auxiliary verb, if present) and converting the main verb into its present participle (-ing form):
- Full Relative Clause: The compliance officer who monitors cross-border capital transfers detected the discrepancy.
- Reduced Participle Clause: The compliance officer monitoring cross-border capital transfers detected the discrepancy.
Reduction of Passive Relative Clauses to Past Participles (-ed / irregular)
Passive relative clauses are reduced by removing the relative pronoun and the passive auxiliary be, leaving the past participle:
- Full Relative Clause: The preliminary audit report that was prepared by external consultants will be presented tomorrow.
- Reduced Participle Clause: The preliminary audit report prepared by external consultants will be presented tomorrow.
Perfect Participle Clauses for Chronological Anteriority
When an action is completed before the action in the main clause takes place, writers use perfect participles:
- Active Perfect Participle:
Having + Past Participle- Example: Having finalized the balance sheet reconciliation, the financial controller submitted the regulatory filing.
- Meaning: After the financial controller had finalized the reconciliation, he/she submitted the filing.
- Passive Perfect Participle:
Having been + Past Participle- Example: Having been notified of the impending antitrust review, the executives assembled their legal documentation.
- Meaning: After the executives had been notified of the review, they assembled their documentation.
| Clause Type | Full Relative Structure | Reduced Participle Equivalent | Voice & Temporal Aspect |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present Participle | Delegates who represent the union... | Delegates representing the union... | Active / Simultaneous |
| Past Participle | Components that were manufactured in Germany... | Components manufactured in Germany... | Passive / Time supplied by context |
| Perfect Participle | Because the team had completed the phase... | Having completed the phase, the team... | Active / Prior Completion |
| Passive Perfect | After the asset had been evaluated by experts... | Having been evaluated by experts, the asset... | Passive / Prior Completion |
5. The Dangling Modifier Trap in Corporate Documentation
A dangling modifier (or dangling participle) occurs when a participle clause introduces a sentence, but its implied subject does not match the grammatical subject of the following independent clause. In corporate contracts and business correspondence, dangling modifiers cause confusion regarding who bears responsibility for an action.
- Dangling (Incorrect): Having reviewed the annual budget, several arithmetic errors were discovered.
- Linguistic Flaw: The grammatical subject of the main clause is several arithmetic errors. The sentence literally states that the arithmetic errors reviewed the annual budget!
- Revised (Correct): Having reviewed the annual budget, the chief accountant discovered several arithmetic errors.
- Linguistic Agreement: The implied agent of having reviewed matches the grammatical subject the chief accountant.
Tip
The Subject Verification Test: When you read an introductory -ing or having done phrase, immediately look at the noun right after the comma. Ask yourself: Can this specific noun physically or logically perform the action in the participle phrase? If not, the sentence is a dangling modifier trap.
The corporate headquarters, ________ underwent extensive architectural renovation last year, achieved LEED gold certification for energy efficiency.
that
what
which
where
The restructuring blueprint ________ during the emergency board session will be distributed to department heads on Monday.
the consultants drafted
which the consultants drafted it
whom the consultants drafted
drafting by the consultants
The senior portfolio manager is the primary officer ________ the institutional investors entrusted their capital.
who
to who
that to
to whom
________ the initial feasibility study, the consortium submitted a formal tender for the infrastructure project.
Having been concluded
Having concluded
Concluded
After concluded
Sections you finish are checked off in the contents.