4.5 Clauses, Conjunctions, and Comparisons
Key Takeaways
- Adjective (relative) clauses use who for people, which for things, that for defining clauses, and whose for possession; noun clauses keep normal subject-before-verb word order, not question order.
- Adverb clauses begin with subordinators (because, although, while, since, if) and must attach to a main clause; a subordinate clause alone is a fragment.
- Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) join two independent clauses, while subordinating conjunctions create dependent clauses; using both at once (although...but) is a double-connector error.
- Comparatives use -er or more for two items, superlatives use -est or most with 'the,' and patterns include as...as, the...the, and double comparatives (the more, the better).
- Conditionals follow fixed tense pairs: zero/first (real), second (unreal present), third (unreal past), plus mixed conditionals that combine a past condition with a present result.
Three Kinds of Subordinate Clause
A clause has a subject and a finite verb. A main (independent) clause stands alone; a subordinate (dependent) clause cannot. The TOEFL ITP tests three subordinate clause types, and each follows its own word-order rule.
Adjective (relative) clauses describe a noun and begin with a relative pronoun:
- who -> people: the student who asked the question
- which -> things: the report which was published
- that -> defining clauses (people or things): the book that changed her mind
- whose -> possession: the author whose theory was tested
- where / when -> place / time: the lab where they worked
Noun clauses act as a subject or object and keep statement word order (subject before verb), even when they start with a question word: I know where the lab is (not where is the lab). The most-tested error reverses this into question order.
Adverb clauses begin with a subordinator (because, although, while, since, if, when, after, before) and modify the main clause: We left early because the road was icy.
Coordinating vs Subordinating Conjunctions
Two families of joining words behave differently, and mixing them is a classic error.
| Type | Members | What they do |
|---|---|---|
| Coordinating (FANBOYS) | for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so | Join two independent clauses as equals (use a comma before them) |
| Subordinating | because, although, since, while, if, when, unless, whereas | Attach a dependent clause to a main clause |
The double-connector error uses one from each family for the same link: Although the plan was risky, but the board approved it. English allows one connector, not two — keep although OR but, not both. This is heavily tested.
Fragments and Run-Ons
Two opposite faults appear in structure items:
- A fragment is a dependent clause or phrase punctuated as a full sentence:
Because the experiment failed.It needs a main clause: Because the experiment failed, they tried again. - A run-on (or comma splice) joins two independent clauses with no connector or only a comma:
The data was clear, the team published it.Fix it with a coordinator (, so), a subordinator (Because the data was clear...), or a period.
Comparatives and Superlatives
Comparison structures are predictable and high-yield:
- Comparative (two items): short adjectives add -er (faster), longer ones use more (more efficient); never both (
more faster). Follow with than: faster than light. - Superlative (three or more): short adjectives add -est with the (the fastest), longer ones use the most (the most efficient).
- as ... as (equality): as tall as her brother; negative: not as expensive as expected.
- the ... the (parallel change): The more you practice, the better you perform.
- double comparative (increasing change): The economy grew faster and faster.
A frequent error uses a comparative for three items (the better of the three should be the best) or a superlative for two (the fastest of the two should be the faster).
Conditionals
Conditional sentences pair a specific tense in the if-clause with a matching tense in the result clause. Learn the four fixed patterns plus the mixed case:
| Type | If-clause | Result clause | Original example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zero (general truth) | present | present | If water reaches 100C, it boils. |
| First (real future) | present | will + base | If it rains, we will cancel the trip. |
| Second (unreal present) | past | would + base | If I had more time, I would revise it. |
| Third (unreal past) | past perfect | would have + participle | If they had left earlier, they would have caught the train. |
| Mixed | past perfect | would + base (now) | If she had studied medicine, she would be a doctor today. |
The most common error puts will in the if-clause (If it will rain) — the if-clause uses the present, not will.
Worked Clause Example
Item: Although the budget was reduced, (A) but the department (B) managed to (C) complete every project (D) on time.
The sentence already opens with the subordinator Although, which makes the first clause dependent. Part A adds the coordinator but for the same connection — a double-connector error. English needs only one: keep Although and delete but. Parts B, C, and D are all correct. The trigger is seeing two joining words doing one job.
Which sentence uses a relative or noun clause with correct word order?
In which underlined part is there a grammatical error? 'Although the new software (A) was expensive, (B) but the firm (C) adopted it because (D) it improved accuracy.'
Which sentence uses a comparative or conditional structure correctly?
Complete the third (unreal past) conditional with the correct result-clause form: 'If the team had submitted the proposal earlier, it ___ ___ ___ funding.' (Use three words.)
Type your answer below