1.2 Health-Related Data and Research Methods
Key Takeaways
- Incidence measures the rate of NEW cases of a disease within a specified timeframe, whereas prevalence measures ALL existing cases in a population at a specific point in time.
- Federal public health agencies have specific roles: the CDC leads surveillance and disease prevention and runs the biennial Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) covering six priority health-risk behaviors among U.S. high school students, NIH conducts medical research, and SAMHSA leads substance use and mental health initiatives.
- Evaluating health resource credibility requires applying criteria such as the CRAAP test (Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose) and prioritizing peer-reviewed evidence.
- Protective factors buffer individuals against health risks, whereas risk factors increase the statistical likelihood of negative physical, mental, or social outcomes.
- Surveys and questionnaires capture self-report and are vulnerable to social desirability and nonresponse bias, while direct observation captures actual behavior but introduces the observer effect -- and neither supports a causal conclusion on its own.
Health-Related Data, Research & Information Sources
Health education curriculum content and instructional decision-making must be grounded in empirical health data and scientifically valid research. Health educators must be proficient in locating, analyzing, interpreting, and communicating data from authoritative public health organizations. Furthermore, educators must teach students essential health literacy skills—specifically how to critically evaluate health information, distinguish between peer-reviewed evidence and commercial marketing, and understand basic epidemiological indicators.
1. Major Federal Health Agencies & Research Repositories
Federal public health agencies serve as the primary sources for health statistics, surveillance data, evidence-based recommendations, and curriculum guidance in the United States.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
An agency of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), the CDC is the nation's leading health protection agency. The CDC conducts health surveillance, investigates disease outbreaks, implements prevention strategies, and publishes national health statistics. For health educators, the CDC provides essential resources including the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), the School Health Index (SHI), and the Community Health Improvement Navigator.
National Institutes of Health (NIH)
The NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting medical and behavioral research. Comprising 27 distinct institutes and centers (such as the National Cancer Institute and the National Institute of Mental Health), the NIH publishes rigorous clinical trials, basic biomedical research, and health education materials grounded in cutting-edge scientific discoveries.
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)
SAMHSA leads public health efforts to advance the behavioral health of the nation. SAMHSA provides national data on substance use, mental illness, and treatment services through surveys such as the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). SAMHSA resources guide health educators in developing substance abuse prevention curricula, mental health awareness units, and suicide prevention protocols.
2. The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS)
Established in 1990 by the CDC, the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) is a national school-based survey conducted biennially (every two years) to monitor health-risk behaviors among high school students in grades 9–12 across the United States.
The Six Priority Health-Risk Behavior Categories
- Behaviors that contribute to unintentional injuries and violence (e.g., seatbelt use, helmet use, weapon carrying, physical fighting, bullying, electronic property damage).
- Sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV infection.
- Alcohol and other drug use (e.g., prescription opioid misuse, binge drinking, illicit drug use).
- Tobacco use (e.g., electronic vapor products, cigarettes, cigars, smokeless tobacco).
- Unhealthy dietary behaviors (e.g., low fruit and vegetable consumption, high intake of sugar-sweetened beverages).
- Inadequate physical activity (e.g., failing to meet recommended 60 minutes of daily aerobic exercise, excessive screen time).
Educational Utility of YRBSS Data
Health educators use YRBSS data to:
- Identify emerging youth health trends and priority risk areas within local, state, and national contexts.
- Justify grant funding and resource allocation for school wellness programs.
- Establish measurable baseline metrics and evaluate curriculum effectiveness over time.
- Dispel "perceived norm" misconceptions among students (e.g., showing students that the majority of peers do not vape or drink alcohol).
2b. Research Methods for Gathering Health-Related Data
The blueprint names surveys, observations, and questionnaires and the use of data to draw conclusions. A health educator both consumes published data and collects local data, and needs to know how each method behaves.
| Method | How data are gathered | Strengths | Limitations |
|---|---|---|---|
| Survey / questionnaire | Self-report on a written or digital instrument | Reaches many people quickly and cheaply; anonymity supports honesty on sensitive topics; standardized items allow comparison | Self-report bias; social desirability bias; nonresponse bias; measures what people say, not what they do |
| Interview | Structured, semi-structured, or open verbal questioning | Depth, follow-up, clarification; works with low-literacy respondents | Time-intensive; interviewer effects; not anonymous |
| Focus group | Facilitated small-group discussion | Surfaces reasoning, language, and norms students actually use | Group dynamics suppress minority views; not generalizable |
| Direct observation | Recording behavior as it occurs, using a defined instrument | Measures actual behavior rather than reported behavior | Observer effect (people behave differently when watched); observer bias; time-intensive |
| Existing records / secondary data | Analyzing data already collected -- YRBSS, attendance, nurse visits | Inexpensive; large samples; trend data | Collected for another purpose; may not fit your question |
| Experimental or quasi-experimental | Comparing groups receiving different conditions | Supports causal inference | Rarely feasible in a school; ethical constraints |
Writing usable items
- One idea per item. "Do you eat breakfast and exercise daily?" is double-barreled and unanswerable.
- Avoid leading wording. "Don't you agree that vaping is dangerous?" prompts an answer.
- Match the reading level and define terms students may not share.
- Use a defined time frame -- "in the past 7 days" rather than "usually."
- Offer response options that are exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
- Keep sensitive items anonymous and voluntary, with the notice or consent that applies.
- Pilot the instrument with a few students before administering it.
Sampling and what conclusions the data support
A representative sample allows generalization to the population; a convenience sample -- the students who happened to be in one class -- does not. Small samples produce unstable percentages, and a 3-point change in a class of 25 is 1 student.
Drawing conclusions responsibly
- Describe before explaining. Report what the data show before proposing why.
- Correlation is not causation. Students who eat breakfast may score higher for reasons unrelated to breakfast.
- Check the denominator. A count without the population it came from means nothing.
- Beware small differences in small samples.
- Ask who is missing. Nonresponse is rarely random; the students who did not answer often differ systematically.
- State the limitation alongside the finding, which is itself the modeling of scientific honesty the standard asks for.
3. Core Epidemiological Concepts and Terminology
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations. Health educators must master basic epidemiological metrics.
Prevalence vs. Incidence
- Incidence: The number of NEW cases of a disease or health condition that develop in a specified population during a given period. Incidence reflects the risk of contracting the disease.
- Prevalence: The total number of ALL existing cases (both new and pre-existing) of a disease in a specified population at a specific point or period in time. Prevalence reflects the overall burden of the disease on a population.
Worked Example:
In a high school of 1,000 students, 50 students were diagnosed with asthma prior to the start of the school year. During the school year, 10 new students were diagnosed with asthma.
- Prevalence at the end of the year = $(50 + 10) / 1,000 = 60 / 1,000 = 6%$ (total burden).
- Incidence during the school year = $10 / (1,000 - 50) = 10 / 950 \approx 1.05%$ (rate of new risk).
Disease Distribution Categories
- Endemic: The constant, baseline presence and expected prevalence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographic area or population group (e.g., seasonal flu or chickenpox in certain regions).
- Epidemic: A sudden increase in the number of cases of a disease above what is normally expected in that population in that area (e.g., a sudden measles outbreak in a school district).
- Pandemic: An epidemic that has spread over several countries or continents, usually affecting a large number of people worldwide (e.g., COVID-19, 1918 Influenza).
Morbidity vs. Mortality
- Morbidity: The state of being diseased, injured, or unhealthy within a population; refers to the incidence or prevalence of illness.
- Mortality: The incidence of death within a given population during a specific timeframe.
Risk Factors vs. Protective Factors
- Risk Factors: Individual attributes, environmental conditions, or behaviors that statistically increase the probability of developing a disease or experiencing a negative health outcome (e.g., smoking, poverty, peer pressure).
- Protective Factors: Characteristics or conditions that mitigate, buffer, or reduce the negative impact of risk factors, promoting resilience and positive health outcomes (e.g., strong school connectedness, parental monitoring, high emotional self-regulation).
4. Evaluating Health Resource Credibility: The CRAAP Test
With the proliferation of online health information, health educators must teach students how to critically evaluate sources using structured assessment frameworks like the CRAAP Test.
| Criterion | Key Evaluation Questions | Standards for Health Resources |
|---|---|---|
| Currency | When was the information published or updated? | Health guidelines should be recent (ideally within 3–5 years). |
| Relevance | Does the information directly address the topic and audience? | Information matches student reading level and clinical context. |
| Authority | Who is the author, publisher, or sponsor? What are credentials? | Published by government agencies (.gov), educational institutions (.edu), or peer-reviewed journals. |
| Accuracy | Is the content supported by empirical evidence and citations? | Claims backed by peer-reviewed research, transparent methodology, and unbiased data. |
| Purpose | What is the intention of the creator (inform, sell, entertain)? | Objective public health information; free from commercial bias or hidden marketing. |
Praxis Exam Traps & Data Analysis Tips
- Trap 1: Confusing Incidence with Prevalence. Remember that Incidence deals exclusively with new cases over a timeframe, while Prevalence counts all cases existing at a specific point.
- Trap 2: Assuming correlation implies causation. In YRBSS data analysis, observing that students who play video games also report lower physical activity shows an association, not direct proof that video games cause physical inactivity.
- Trap 3: Domain authority misinterpretation. Not all
.comwebsites are untrustworthy, but for health research, peer-reviewed journals (.org, .gov, .edu) represent the gold standard for scientific validity on exam items. - Trap: Treating self-report as measured behavior. Surveys record what people say; observation records what they do.
- Trap: Generalizing from a convenience sample. Only a representative sample supports a claim about the population.
The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS), conducted biennially by the CDC, monitors six categories of health-risk behaviors among youth. Which of the following is NOT one of the six priority health-risk behaviors tracked by YRBSS?
An epidemiologist calculates that in a school district of 5,000 students, 25 new cases of influenza were diagnosed during the first week of October. This statistic measuring new cases occurring within a specific timeframe is known as:
When evaluating the credibility of an online health article for use in a middle school health curriculum, which criterion provides the STRONGEST evidence of scientific validity?
Which federal agency operating under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services is specifically tasked with leading public health efforts to advance behavioral health and reduce the impact of substance abuse and mental illness in America?