7.2 ESOL Program Delivery Models, Bilingual Approaches, and Push-in/Pull-out Structures

7.2 ESOL Program Delivery Models, Bilingual Approaches, and Push-in/Pull-out Structures

Designing effective instructional programs for English Language Learners requires balancing language acquisition theory, student demographics, structural resources, and legal mandates. On the Praxis ESOL (5362) exam, candidates must analyze how different program models promote or hinder cognitive growth, literacy development, and long-term academic achievement. Programs broadly divide into bilingual models (utilizing L1 and L2) and English-only/ESL models (utilizing English as the primary medium of instruction).

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1. Core Philosophical Paradigms: Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism

All program models operate along an ideological and pedagogical continuum anchored by two opposing frameworks:

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|                         BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION CONTINUUM                           |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
|  SUBTRACTIVE MODEL <-----------------------------------------> ADDITIVE MODEL     |
|  - Target: English Only                                       - Target: Biliteracy|
|  - L1 replaced by L2                                          - L1 maintained     |
|  - Risk of native language loss                               - High cognitive    |
|  - Examples: Early-Exit TBE, Submersion                       - Examples: Dual    |
|                                                                 Language, Late-Exit|
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

Additive Bilingualism

Additive bilingualism occurs when learning a second language (L2) enhances and expands an individual's linguistic repertoire without replacing or degrading their native language (L1).

• Cognitive & Literacy Benefits: Grounded in Jim Cummins' Dual Iceberg Hypothesis (Common Underlying Proficiency), additive models leverage conceptual knowledge and literacy skills acquired in L1 to accelerate L2 comprehension and academic transfer.
• Socio-Cultural Security: Students maintain family communication, identity, and cultural ties while achieving high levels of bilingualism and biliteracy.

Subtractive Bilingualism

Subtractive bilingualism occurs when L2 acquisition results in the gradual erosion or total loss of L1.

• Mechanisms: Students receive instruction exclusively in English while their L1 is marginalized or prohibited in school.
• Negative Consequences: As ELLs lose L1 vocabulary and structural competence before fully developing Academic English (CALP), they suffer cognitive gaps, familial communication barriers, and higher risk of long-term academic underachievement.

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2. Typology of Bilingual Program Models

Bilingual programs utilize both the student's native language and English for instruction, but their underlying goals and instructional ratios differ significantly.

Dual Language / Two-Way Immersion (TWI)

Dual Language Immersion is an additive, enrichment model that integrates native English speakers and ELL native speakers of a target language (e.g., Spanish, Mandarin) in the same classroom.

• Core Goals: Grade-level academic achievement, full bilingualism, biliteracy, and cross-cultural competence for both student groups.
• Program Ratios:
  • 90/10 Model: In Pre-K/Kindergarten, 90% of instruction is delivered in the partner/target language, and 10% in English. The proportion of English increases by 10% each grade level until reaching a balanced 50/50 ratio by 4th or 5th grade.
  • 50/50 Model: Instruction is split equally (50% partner language, 50% English) from Kindergarten through middle or high school, often organized by alternating days, half-days, or subject areas.

One-Way Dual Language / Maintenance Bilingual Education

Serves a homogenous group of ELLs who share the same native language (e.g., all Spanish speakers). Like Two-Way Immersion, it aims for full biliteracy and long-term academic achievement by maintaining L1 instruction alongside English through upper elementary or middle school (grade 6+).

Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE)

TBE programs serve ELLs from a shared language background, utilizing L1 for initial reading and content instruction while systematically building English proficiency. However, unlike Dual Language, TBE is designed to transition students into English-only instruction.

• Early-Exit TBE: Focuses on rapid transition to English. L1 instruction is phased out within 1 to 3 school years. Research (e.g., Thomas & Collier) demonstrates that Early-Exit TBE functions subtractionally and fails to produce sustained long-term academic parity with native English peers.
• Late-Exit (Developmental) TBE: Retains L1 content instruction for 4 to 6 years (40-50% of the day in L1 through 5th/6th grade). Because students develop strong L1 CALP, Late-Exit TBE functions additively and produces significantly higher English academic scores in secondary school.

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3. English-Focused & Sheltered Program Models

When student populations are linguistically diverse or bilingual teachers are unavailable, school districts implement English-focused instructional models.

Structured English Immersion (SEI)

In Structured English Immersion (SEI), nearly all instruction is conducted in English. Content-area teachers use simplified syntax, visual supports, graphic organizers, and explicit vocabulary instruction to make grade-level concepts comprehensible. Native language use is minimized and restricted primarily to brief clarify-and-check moments.

Newcomer Programs

Newcomer Programs are specialized, short-term interventions (typically lasting 6 to 18 months) designed for recently arrived immigrant students with low English proficiency. They are especially critical for Students with Interrupted Formal Education (SIFE) or Students with Limited or Interrupted Formal Education (SLIFE).

• Features: Small class sizes, intensive foundational literacy and numeration, basic English acquisition, socio-emotional support, and orientation to American public school culture.
• Goal: Rapidly bridge academic and language gaps to allow safe transition into mainstream or sheltered ESOL programs.

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4. ESL Program Delivery Structures: Pull-Out vs. Push-In / Co-Teaching

School districts structure ESL teacher delivery through two primary administrative configurations:

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|                         ESL DELIVERY MODEL COMPARISON                             |
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| PULL-OUT ESL MODEL                                PUSH-IN / CO-TEACHING MODEL     |
| - Student leaves general ed class                 - ESOL specialist enters gen-ed |
| - Isolated language/vocabulary instruction        - Language taught inside content|
| - Disadvantage: Missed core content               - Collaborative planning required|
| - Advantage: Low-affective filter for beginners   - Advantage: Equal content access|
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

ESL Pull-Out Model

In a Pull-Out ESL model, ELLs are removed from their mainstream general education classrooms for small-group, specialized English Language Development (ELD) instruction with a certified ESOL specialist for 30 to 90 minutes per day.

• Advantages: Provides a safe, low-anxiety environment (low affective filter) for newcomer ELLs to practice basic communicative skills (BICS) and targeted phonics/grammar.
• Disadvantages: Disrupts student learning schedules; causes ELLs to miss crucial grade-level core content instruction (science, social studies, math); creates feelings of isolation or social stigmatization.

ESL Push-In / Co-Teaching Model

In a Push-In model, the ESOL specialist enters the general education content classroom to co-teach alongside the general education content teacher, delivering embedded language scaffolding during mainstream lessons.

• Advantages: Ensures ELLs maintain continuous access to rigorous grade-level content; eliminates schedule disruptions and segregation; fosters shared responsibility among teachers.
• Disadvantages: Requires dedicated collaborative planning time; risks reducing the ESOL teacher to a subordinate classroom assistant if co-teaching roles are poorly defined.

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5. Comparative Program Matrix for Praxis ESOL

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6. Praxis Application & Scenario Analysis

Praxis Exam Scenario: A school district with a rapidly growing population of native Spanish-speaking ELLs wants to select a program model. District data reveals that ELLs exiting ESOL in 2nd grade under an Early-Exit model demonstrate declining reading scores in 5th grade. The school board asks the ESOL lead teacher for a research-backed recommendation.

Diagnostic Analysis: The decline in secondary scores reflects the subtractive nature of Early-Exit TBE. Early exit removes L1 literacy instruction before students have established deep Academic English (CALP), leading to cognitive plateaus.

Evidence-Based Recommendation: The specialist should advocate for a Two-Way Dual Language or Late-Exit Developmental Bilingual model. Longitudinal research by Thomas and Collier confirms that students who receive sustained L1 literacy instruction through 5th/6th grade achieve higher long-term academic success in English than peers in early-exit or English-only immersion models.