8.2 Sentences, Clauses, Fragments & Relative Clauses

Once you can label word classes, the next Syntax skill is sentence architecture. ICAS items ask you to spot complete sentences, fix fragments, choose the best way to join ideas, or identify how a clause is working — as a main statement, as a relative description of a noun, or as an adverbial condition of time, reason or contrast. Framework-style upper papers (including Paper E and above in the ICAS English skill progression) expect comfort with relative/adjectival and adverbial clauses, not only simple subject–verb lines. All examples below are original.

Sentence vs Clause vs Phrase

A finite verb is marked for tense (and often person/number): rises, rose, has risen, will rise. Forms like rising or to rise alone do not make a full finite clause.

Independent and Dependent Clauses

Independent clause: expresses a complete idea and can stand alone.

• The library closed at six.
• Jalen finished the model.

Dependent (subordinate) clause: has subject + finite verb but cannot stand alone; it needs an independent clause.

• because the library closed at six
• when Jalen finished the model
• that sat on the windowsill

Dependent clauses usually begin with a subordinating conjunction (because, although, if, when, while, since, unless, after, before, until) or a relative pronoun/adverb (who, which, that, whose, where, when in relative use).

Test: Cover the rest of the sentence. If the remaining clause feels unfinished or like a "because…" answer without a question, it is dependent.

Simple, Compound and Complex Sentences

Coordinating conjunctions for compound sentences (the classic set): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so — often remembered as FANBOYS. Use a comma before the coordinator when joining two full independent clauses: She called twice, but no one answered.

Do not call a sentence compound merely because it has two nouns: Tom and Rina arrived is still simple (one clause).

Fragments: Incomplete "Sentences"

A fragment is punctuated like a sentence but lacks a complete independent clause.

Common fragment patterns (original)

1. Dependent clause alone: Because the bus was late.
2. -ing phrase alone: Running toward the platform.
3. Detail phrase: Especially on cold mornings.
4. Relative clause alone: Which surprised the whole class.
5. Missing subject or finite verb: The trophy on the top shelf. / The team ready for kickoff.

How to fix

• Attach the fragment to a nearby independent clause: Because the bus was late, we missed the first song.
• Add the missing subject or finite verb: The trophy on the top shelf gleamed. / The team was ready for kickoff.
• Turn a relative orphan into a full sentence: The result surprised the whole class.

ICAS angle: Stems often ask "Which is a complete sentence?" or "Which option correctly joins the ideas?" Fragments and run-ons are frequent wrong answers that still "sound smart" because they use advanced vocabulary.

Run-ons and Comma Splices (Brief)

A run-on jams two independents with no proper join: The rain stopped we went outside.
A comma splice uses only a comma: The rain stopped, we went outside.

Legal joins

• Period: The rain stopped. We went outside.
• Coordinating conjunction: The rain stopped, and we went outside.
• Semicolon: The rain stopped; we went outside.
• Subordination: When the rain stopped, we went outside.

Relative (Adjectival) Clauses

A relative clause modifies a noun (or noun phrase). It usually begins with who, whom, whose, which, that, or sometimes where/when after a place/time noun.

Original examples

• The engineer who designed the bridge spoke next. → modifies engineer
• We followed the path that led to the lagoon. → modifies path
• Here is the notebook whose cover is torn. → modifies notebook
• They visited the town where the festival began. → modifies town

Relative clauses are adjectival: they answer which one? or what kind? about a noun. That is different from adverbial clauses, which answer when? why? under what condition? about the action.

Essential vs non-essential relative clauses

ICAS tip: If removing the clause still leaves a clear, specific noun, it is often non-essential and needs commas. If removing it makes you ask "which one?", it is essential.

That is typically used in essential clauses; which often appears in non-essential clauses in careful school style (The map, which was folded twice, tore at the crease). Follow the option that matches punctuation and meaning, not a rigid rule divorced from the sentence.

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses modify a verb or the whole main clause. They often show time, reason, condition, contrast, purpose or manner.

Adverbial clauses can come first (usually with a comma) or later: They climbed on although the path was steep.

Relative vs Adverbial: Side-by-Side

Same idea, different structure:

• Relative (modifies noun): I remember the day that we met.
• Adverbial (modifies verb/clause): I smiled when we met.

Both can use when, so ask: Does the clause describe a noun (day) or set the time of the action (smiled)?

Joining Sentences: ICAS-Style Choices

Given two simple sentences:

1. The kite snagged on a wire.
2. The kite was brand new.

Possible joins (original)

• Relative: The kite, which was brand new, snagged on a wire.
• Compound: The kite was brand new, but it snagged on a wire.
• Complex (adverbial): Although the kite was brand new, it snagged on a wire.
• Reduced feel with apposition: The brand-new kite snagged on a wire. (no longer two clauses)

Choose based on the stem: If it asks for a relative clause, pick the who/which/that option. If it asks for contrast, prefer although/but. If it asks for a complete sentence without fragments, reject options that leave Which was brand new. alone.

Worked Identification (Original Passage)

When the fog lifted, the ferry that had waited offshore finally docked, and passengers cheered.

Overall sentence type: compound–complex (two independents + dependent material).

Strategy Checklist for ICAS

1. Underline every finite verb; match each to its subject.
2. Mark each clause independent or dependent.
3. For "complete sentence" items, keep only options with at least one independent clause and no illegal joins.
4. For relative items, find the noun being modified.
5. For comma questions on relatives, test whether the clause is essential identification or extra information.
6. Prefer joins that keep the writer's logical relationship (time, contrast, cause), not just any grammatically possible glue.

Fragments and clause types feel mechanical at first. With deliberate practice on original sentences, they become a fast scoring area on the Syntax strand.