6.3 Punctuation & Capitalization

Commas: Five High-Frequency Uses

Comma errors are the most common punctuation problems on the GED RLA. Five rules cover almost every tested case.

The restrictive vs. nonrestrictive distinction is heavily tested. A nonrestrictive (nonessential) element can be removed without changing the core meaning, so it takes commas: The report, written by the intern, was late. A restrictive (essential) element identifies which one you mean and takes no commas: The report that the intern wrote was late. Use which with commas for nonessential clauses and that with no commas for essential clauses.

Introductory Elements and Coordinate Adjectives

Put a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or clause that comes before the main clause: However, the plan failed. / After the long delay, the flight boarded. / Because it rained, we left. Do not add a comma when the same clause follows the main clause (We left because it rained).

Use a comma between coordinate adjectives — two or more adjectives that each modify the noun independently. The test: if you can reverse them or insert and without a change in meaning, they are coordinate and need a comma (a long, boring meeting = a boring, long meeting). Cumulative adjectives, which build on one another, take no comma (three small plastic cups, not three, small, plastic cups).

Semicolons and Colons

A semicolon joins two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction: The museum was closed; we visited the garden instead. It also appears before a conjunctive adverb (however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless) that links two clauses — The trial ended; however, the appeal continued — and it separates list items that already contain commas. A semicolon never connects a sentence to a fragment.

A colon introduces a list, explanation, or quotation and must follow a complete independent clause: She packed three items: a map, a compass, and water. Do not drop a colon right after a verb or preposition (She packed: a map... is wrong).

Apostrophes: Possession vs. Contraction

Apostrophes show either possession or a contraction — never a simple plural.

The classic GED trap is the possessive-vs-contraction pair. Memorize these: its = belonging to it, it's = it is; their = belonging to them, they're = they are, there = a place; your = belonging to you, you're = you are; whose = possessive, who's = who is. Test by expanding the contraction: if it is fits, write it's; otherwise write its.

Two more apostrophe rules the GED checks: never use an apostrophe for a simple plural (the 1990s, three DVDs, the Smiths — no apostrophe), and with joint possession add 's to only the last owner (Kim and Lee's project means one shared project, while Kim's and Lee's projects means two separate ones).

Quotation Marks

Quotation marks enclose direct speech and exact wording from a source, not paraphrases. In American English, commas and periods go inside the closing quotation mark, while colons and semicolons go outside. A comma introduces a quote after a speaker tag, and the quote begins with a capital letter.

The professor said, "Study for the final; it will be comprehensive."

Use quotation marks only for exact words; an indirect quote takes no marks (The professor said that the final would be comprehensive). A question mark or exclamation point goes inside the closing mark when it belongs to the quotation (She asked, "Are we ready?") but outside when it belongs to the whole sentence (Did she really say, "We are ready"?). This inside-or-outside decision is a frequent hard-item distinction.

Capitalization Rules

Capitalize the first word of a sentence, proper nouns (specific people, places, organizations), languages and nationalities, days, months, and holidays, and the important words in titles. Do not capitalize seasons, school subjects that are not languages, compass directions used generally, or common nouns.

Wrong: She studied french and Biology at the Community College. Right: She studied French and biology at the community college.

French is a language (capitalized), biology is a general subject (lowercase), and community college is a generic term, not a specific institution's name.

Two finer points: titles of works capitalize the first and last words and every important word in between, but not short articles or prepositions (The Grapes of Wrath). Proper adjectives formed from proper nouns stay capitalized (Shakespearean sonnet, Victorian era), while family titles are capitalized only when used as a name — I called Mom (name) versus I called my mom (common noun). When in doubt, ask whether the word names one specific person, place, or thing; if it does, capitalize it.

Colon vs. Semicolon: A Quick Decision

Both marks are stronger than a comma, but they do different jobs, and the GED tests the difference directly.

The shared rule is that a complete independent clause must come first. Never write The tools I need are: a hammer and nails — the clause before the colon is incomplete because are still needs its complement. Fix it: I need two tools: a hammer and nails.

Capitalizing Titles

In a title or heading, capitalize the first and last words and every major word — nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns. Keep short articles, coordinating conjunctions, and short prepositions lowercase unless they open the title.

The Old Man and the Sea — and and the second the stay lowercase, while Old, Man, and Sea are capitalized.

Also capitalize a person's title only when it comes directly before a name: We met President Lincoln, but Lincoln was the president.

Comma Traps to Avoid

The GED penalizes extra commas as often as missing ones. Three rules stop over-commaing:

• Do not separate a subject from its verb: The new manager from the Dallas office, started Monday is wrong — delete the comma.
• Do not put a comma before the first item or after the last item in a series: We bought, apples, pears, and plums, is wrong on both ends.
• Do not comma-splice two sentences (see 6.1); a lone comma cannot join independent clauses.

Over-punctuated: My oldest sister, who lives in Ohio, and works as a nurse, is visiting. Corrected: My oldest sister, who lives in Ohio and works as a nurse, is visiting.

The relative clause who lives in Ohio and works as a nurse is a single unit, so it takes only the opening and closing pair of commas — the middle comma wrongly split a compound predicate inside the clause.