7.1 Grammar and Sentence Structure

Grammar and Sentence Structure

Mastering grammar and sentence structure is a core component of the GACE Paraprofessional Assessment. As a paraprofessional, you will regularly assist students with their writing, read student essays, and communicate with teachers and administrators. A strong grasp of these mechanical rules enables you to provide clear feedback and model proper English usage. This section covers sentence types, structural errors, and critical agreement rules.

Understanding Sentence Types

Sentences are built from clauses—groups of words containing a subject and a predicate (verb). Understanding the different types of clauses is key to identifying sentence structures and correcting writing errors. An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent (or subordinate) clause contains a subject and a verb but starts with a subordinating conjunction, meaning it cannot stand alone.

Sentences are classified into four primary types based on their clause structure:

1. Simple Sentences: A simple sentence contains exactly one independent clause and no dependent clauses. It has a single complete thought, though it may include compound subjects or compound verbs.

   • Example: 'The paraprofessional assisted the student with the science experiment.' (One subject: paraprofessional; one verb: assisted).
   • Example with compound elements: 'The teacher and the paraprofessional graded papers and organized the classroom.' (Compound subject: teacher and paraprofessional; compound verb: graded and organized).

2. Compound Sentences: A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (remember the acronym FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) preceded by a comma, or joined by a semicolon.

   • Example with conjunction: 'The bell rang, so the students lined up at the door.' (Two independent clauses joined by so).
   • Example with semicolon: 'The library was quiet; many students were studying for their exams.' (Two independent clauses joined by a semicolon).

3. Complex Sentences: A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The dependent clause begins with a subordinating conjunction (e.g., because, although, since, if, when, while).

   • Example: 'Because it was raining, the students had indoor recess.' (Dependent clause: Because it was raining; independent clause: the students had indoor recess).
   • Example: 'The student completed the worksheet before the timer buzzed.' (Independent clause first; note that no comma is needed when the independent clause comes before the dependent clause).

4. Compound-Complex Sentences: A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.

   • Example: 'Although the test was difficult, Marcus finished early, and he checked his answers.' (Dependent clause: Although the test was difficult; independent clauses: Marcus finished early and he checked his answers).

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Sentence Fragments and Run-On Sentences

Two of the most common writing errors tested on the GACE are sentence fragments and run-on sentences.

Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence but is grammatically incomplete. It is missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought. Fragments are often dependent clauses left standing alone.

• Fragment: 'Running down the hallway to catch the school bus.' (Missing a subject and a helping verb—who was running?).
• Correction: 'The student was running down the hallway to catch the school bus.'
• Fragment: 'Because the school computer was outdated.' (Dependent clause left alone; lacks a main independent clause).
• Correction: 'Because the school computer was outdated, the student could not load the software.'

Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined without appropriate punctuation or coordinating conjunctions. A comma splice is a specific type of run-on where two independent clauses are joined by only a comma.

• Run-On: 'The teacher wrote on the whiteboard the students copied the vocabulary words.' (Two independent clauses pushed together).
• Comma Splice: 'The teacher wrote on the whiteboard, the students copied the vocabulary words.' (Comma alone cannot join two independent clauses).
• Corrections:
  1. Add a coordinating conjunction: 'The teacher wrote on the whiteboard, and the students copied the vocabulary words.'
  2. Use a period: 'The teacher wrote on the whiteboard. The students copied the vocabulary words.'
  3. Use a semicolon: 'The teacher wrote on the whiteboard; the students copied the vocabulary words.'

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Subject-Verb Agreement

Subject-verb agreement is a fundamental rule: a verb must agree in number with its subject. Singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects require plural verbs. While this seems straightforward, the GACE exam uses specific structures to trick test-takers.

Intervening Phrases

Test writers often insert prepositional or parenthetical phrases between the subject and the verb. These phrases (often starting with of, in, with, along with, as well as, in addition to) do not change the number of the subject.

• Incorrect: 'The bag of colored marbles have been misplaced.' (The plural marbles is part of a prepositional phrase. The subject is the singular bag).
• Correct: 'The bag of colored marbles has been misplaced.'
• Incorrect: 'The teacher, along with three parent volunteers, are planning the field trip.' (The phrase along with... does not make the subject plural. The subject is the singular teacher).
• Correct: 'The teacher, along with three parent volunteers, is planning the field trip.'

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific people or things. Some are always singular, some are always plural, and others can be either depending on the context.

• Always Singular: each, every, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, either, neither.
  • Incorrect: 'Each of the students have completed their assignment.' (The subject is the singular Each).
  • Correct: 'Each of the students has completed his or her assignment.'
• Always Plural: both, few, many, several.
  • Correct: 'Many of the children prefer playing outdoors.'
• Variable (depends on the noun that follows): all, any, more, most, some.
  • Correct (singular): 'Some of the milk has spilled.'
  • Correct (plural): 'Some of the books have been read.'

Compound Subjects

When subjects are joined by coordinating conjunctions, the rules depend on the conjunction used:

• Joined by and: The subject is plural and takes a plural verb.
  • Correct: 'The principal and the counselor are in the meeting.'
• Joined by or or nor: The verb agrees with the subject closest to it.
  • Correct: 'Neither the teacher nor the students are attending the assembly.' (The plural students is closer to the verb).
  • Correct: 'Neither the students nor the teacher is attending the assembly.' (The singular teacher is closer to the verb).

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Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun replaces a noun. The antecedent is the noun that the pronoun replaces. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in both number (singular or plural) and gender.

• Singular Indefinite Pronouns: Pronouns like everyone, someone, and each are singular. In formal writing, they must be paired with singular pronouns.
  • Informal/Colloquial: 'Everyone must clean their desk before recess.'
  • Formal (Exam Standard): 'Everyone must clean his or her desk before recess.'
• Collective Nouns: Nouns that represent a group (e.g., class, team, committee, audience) are singular if the group acts as a single unit.
  • Correct: 'The fourth-grade class finished its reading assignment.' (The class acts as one unit).
  • Correct: 'The team members put on their uniforms.' (Individual members are acting).
• Vague Pronoun Reference: Ensure that it is absolutely clear who or what the pronoun refers to.
  • Vague: 'The principal told the teacher that she was scheduled to lead the assembly.' (Who is leading the assembly? The principal or the teacher?).
  • Clear: 'The principal told the teacher, "You are scheduled to lead the assembly."

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Double Negatives

A double negative occurs when two negative words are used in the same clause. In English, two negatives cancel each other out and create a positive meaning, which is almost always unintentional and grammatically incorrect. Common negative words include no, not, never, nothing, none, neither, as well as negative adverbs like hardly, barely, scarcely.

• Incorrect: 'I don't have no pencils to share.' (The contraction don't and the word no are both negative).
• Correct: 'I don't have any pencils to share.' OR 'I have no pencils to share.'
• Incorrect: 'The student could not hardly hear the instructions.' (not and hardly are double negatives).
• Correct: 'The student could hardly hear the instructions.'

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Worked Examples

Let's review worked examples showing how these errors are identified and corrected.

Example 1: Fragment Correction

• Original: 'Although the school board approved the funding for new textbooks. The materials will not arrive until next semester.'
• Analysis: The first sentence is a dependent clause because it begins with the subordinating conjunction Although. It is a fragment.
• Correction: 'Although the school board approved the funding for new textbooks, the materials will not arrive until next semester.' (The fragment is connected to the independent clause using a comma).

Example 2: Subject-Verb Agreement

• Original: 'A list of students who need extra reading assistance are kept in the binder.'
• Analysis: The subject is the singular noun list. The prepositional phrases of students and who need extra reading assistance are intervening elements. The plural verb are must be changed to the singular is.
• Correction: 'A list of students who need extra reading assistance is kept in the binder.'

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Exam Traps and Classroom Scenarios

On the GACE Paraprofessional Assessment, questions will often present four sentences and ask you to identify the one that is grammatically correct or contains an error.

• The Intervening Phrase Trap: Watch for sentences that separate the subject from the verb with long prepositional phrases. Identify the actual subject first.
• The "Everyone/Their" Trap: Formal grammar requires everyone to be followed by his or her. Be alert for options that use their with singular indefinite pronouns.
• Classroom Application: When working with students, you might say: "Let's find the subject of this sentence. Who or what is doing the action? Now, let's look at the verb. Do they match up?" This active strategy helps students check their own writing for subject-verb agreement.