Grammar and Usage
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Sentence Structure
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Punctuation
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Organization and Transitions
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Word Choice and Diction
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Rhetorical Effectiveness
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Quick Facts
- Exam
- PERT Writing
- Administrator
- Florida Dept. of Education
- Questions
- 30 (25 scored + 5 field-test)
- Time
- Untimed (~45-60 min)
- College-ready score
- 103 or higher
- Score range
- 50-150 scaled score
- Format
- Computer-adaptive multiple choice
- Level
- College placement, not pass/fail
Who/Whom Test
He fits, use who; him fits, use whom
He fits = whoHim fits = whom
Who vs Whom
Who
- Subject pronoun
- Replace with he/she
Whom
- Object pronoun
- Replace with him/her
He=who, him=whom
Subject-Verb Agreement
- Collective noun
- Singular verb, singular pronoun
- Indefinite pronoun subject
- Each, everyone, nobody = singular
- Compound subject + and
- Plural verb needed
- Or/nor compound subject
- Verb agrees with nearer noun
- Intervening phrase
- Ignore it; match true subject
- There is / there are
- Verb agrees with subject after
- None as subject
- Singular or plural by context
Pronoun Case and Reference
- Who vs whom
- He/she = who; him/her = whom
- Subject pronoun
- I, he, she, we, they
- Object pronoun
- Me, him, her, us, them
- Between you and me
- Prepositions take object pronouns
- Ambiguous pronoun reference
- Unclear antecedent confuses reader
- Pronoun-antecedent agreement
- Match number: singular to singular
- Indefinite antecedent
- Everyone takes his or her
Verb Tense and Forms
- Tense consistency
- Keep one tense per passage
- Avoid tense shifts
- Don't jump past to present
- Past perfect
- Had + verb for earlier action
- Lay vs lie
- Lay=set something; lie=recline
- Irregular past participles
- Memorize forms like written, seen
- Subjunctive mood
- If I were, not was
FANBOYS
For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So
Coordinating conjunctionsJoin independent clausesUse comma before conjunction
Fragment vs Run-On
Fragment
- Missing subject or verb
- Incomplete thought alone
Run-on
- Two clauses, no punctuation
- Needs a break
Too little vs too much
Fix the Sentence Error
- Two independent clauses, no punctuation→Add comma + FANBOYS(Or semicolon)
- Comma joins two independent clauses→Replace comma with semicolon(Or period)
- Group starts with subordinator alone→Attach to independent clause(Fixes fragment)
- Modifier describes wrong noun→Move modifier next to noun(Fixes dangling modifier)
- List items mismatched form→Match grammatical form(Fixes parallelism)
- Two clauses closely related→Join with semicolon(No conjunction needed)
Fragments vs Run-Ons
- Sentence fragment
- Missing subject, verb, or completeness
- Dependent clause alone
- Needs an independent clause attached
- Run-on sentence
- Two independent clauses, no punctuation
- Comma splice
- Comma alone joining independent clauses
- Fix run-ons
- Period, semicolon, or conjunction
- FANBOYS
- Coordinating conjunctions join independent clauses
Modifiers and Parallelism
- Dangling modifier
- Modifies word not actually present
- Misplaced modifier
- Sits too far from target word
- Squinting modifier
- Unclear which word it modifies
- Parallel structure
- Match grammatical form in lists
- Faulty comparison
- Compare like items, add 'other'
- Correlative conjunctions
- Not only, but also parallel
Apostrophe Placement
Singular add 's; plural add s'
Team's idea (one team)Teams' idea (many teams)
Dash vs Hyphen
Dash
- Sets off extra information
- Adds dramatic emphasis
Hyphen
- Joins compound modifiers
- Joins compound numbers
Emphasis vs joining words
Which Punctuation Mark
- Joining 2 independent clauses→Semicolon or comma + FANBOYS
- Introducing list or explanation→Colon after independent clause
- Nonessential clause in sentence→Set off with commas
- Showing possession, singular noun→Apostrophe + s
- Two words before another noun→Hyphenate the compound modifier
- Interrupting a sentence briefly→Use dashes or parentheses
Comma Rules
- Comma + FANBOYS
- Joins two independent clauses
- Introductory element comma
- Comma after opening word or phrase
- Nonrestrictive clause
- Set off with commas, non-essential
- Restrictive clause
- No commas, essential to meaning
- Serial comma
- Comma before final item in series
- Appositive comma
- Set off renaming phrase with commas
- Direct address comma
- Set off name being spoken to
Semicolon vs Colon
Semicolon
- Joins two independent clauses
- Equal-weight related ideas
Colon
- Introduces list or explanation
- Follows independent clause only
Join equals vs introduce
Semicolons and Colons
- Semicolon use
- Joins two related independent clauses
- Semicolon + conjunctive adverb
- However, therefore need semicolon before
- Colon use
- Introduces list after independent clause
- No colon after verb
- Avoid colon right after 'is'
- Colon vs dash
- Colon formal; dash adds emphasis
Restrictive vs Nonrestrictive
Restrictive
- Essential to meaning
- No surrounding commas
Nonrestrictive
- Extra, non-essential detail
- Set off with commas
Needed vs extra info
Apostrophes and Other Marks
- Singular possessive
- Add apostrophe + s
- Plural possessive
- Add apostrophe after the s
- Irregular plural possessive
- Add apostrophe + s (children's)
- Contraction apostrophe
- Replaces missing letters (don't, it's)
- Its vs it's
- Its=possessive; it's=it is
- Compound modifier hyphen
- Hyphenate before noun (well-known author)
Transition Map
Add, Contrast, Cause, Sequence, Example, Concede
Furthermore = addHowever = contrastTherefore = causeFirst = sequence
Pick the Transition
- Adding another point→Furthermore, moreover, in addition
- Showing contrast or contradiction→However, nevertheless, on the other hand
- Showing cause and result→Therefore, consequently, as a result
- Listing steps in order→First, next, then, finally
- Giving a specific example→For example, for instance
- Conceding an opposing point→Although, granted, admittedly
Transition Word Categories
- Additive transitions
- Furthermore, moreover, in addition
- Contrast transitions
- However, nevertheless, on the contrary
- Cause-effect transitions
- Therefore, consequently, as a result
- Sequence transitions
- First, next, then, finally
- Example transitions
- For example, for instance
- Concession transitions
- Although, granted, admittedly
- Emphasis transitions
- Indeed, in fact, certainly
Paragraph Organization
- Topic sentence
- States the paragraph's main idea
- Supporting sentences
- Develop and prove the topic
- Concluding sentence
- Wraps up the paragraph's point
- Paragraph unity
- One main idea per paragraph
- Logical sentence order
- Chronological or cause-effect sequence
Affect vs Effect
Affect
- Usually a verb
- Means to influence
Effect
- Usually a noun
- Means a result
Verb vs noun usually
Commonly Confused Words
- Affect vs effect
- Affect=verb; effect=noun
- Their/there/they're
- Possessive, place, contraction of they are
- Imply vs infer
- Speaker implies; listener infers
- Fewer vs less
- Fewer=count nouns; less=mass nouns
- Than vs then
- Than=comparison; then=time/sequence
- Accept vs except
- Accept=receive; except=excluding
- Complement vs compliment
- Complement completes; compliment praises
- Whose vs who's
- Whose=possessive; who's=who is
Diction and Tone
- Redundancy
- Cut words that repeat meaning
- Wordiness
- Cut filler; state idea directly
- Formal tone
- Avoid slang, contractions, casual phrasing
- Precise word choice
- Pick the specific, not vague, term
- Connotation vs denotation
- Feeling implied vs literal definition
Concise Check
Cut redundant words; keep only essential meaning
Remove repeated ideasPrefer active voiceChoose shorter synonym
Active vs Passive Voice
Active
- Subject performs the action
- Clear and direct
Passive
- Subject receives the action
- Wordier and weaker
Doer first vs doer last
Argument and Evidence
- Thesis statement
- States the essay's main claim
- Supporting evidence
- Facts and examples back claims
- Counterargument
- Acknowledge and address opposing view
- Sentence relevance
- Cut sentences off the topic
- Logical fallacy
- Reasoning error weakens the argument
- Evaluating evidence quality
- Strong evidence is specific, relevant
Style and Voice
- Active voice
- Subject performs the action
- Passive voice
- Subject receives the action
- Conciseness
- Fewest words for the idea
- Sentence combining
- Merge choppy sentences smoothly
- Sentence variety
- Vary length and structure
Common Traps
Comma splice ≠ correct punctuation
Comma alone can't join clauses ≠ Needs semicolon or conjunction
Fragment ≠ complete sentence
Missing subject or verb ≠ Cannot stand alone
Its ≠ it's
Its shows possession ≠ It's means it is
Whose ≠ who's
Whose shows possession ≠ Who's means who is
Dangling modifier ≠ clear sentence
Modifier lacks a subject ≠ Confuses who or what
Restrictive clause ≠ needs commas
Essential info, no commas ≠ Removing it changes meaning
Passive voice ≠ strongest choice
Buries the true subject ≠ Active voice reads clearer
Last Minute
- 1.30 questions: 25 scored, 5 unscored
- 2.Untimed; average 45 to 60 minutes
- 3.Score 103+ places into ENC 1101
- 4.Computer-adaptive: can't skip or revisit
- 5.No calculator needed for writing
- 6.Comma + FANBOYS joins independent clauses
- 7.Semicolon joins two independent clauses
- 8.Match transition word to relationship
- 9.Check subject-verb and pronoun agreement first
- 10.Read full paragraph before organization questions
- 11.Watch for its vs it's
- 12.Active voice usually beats passive voice
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