2.4 Survival Craft Equipment, Pyrotechnics & Rescue Operations

Survival Craft Equipment, Pyrotechnics & Rescue Operations

Quick Reference: Equipment aboard survival craft is standardized by SOLAS Chapter III and the LSA Code. Pack A is mandated for international voyages (>24 hours from shelter), providing 1.5 liters of water and 10,000 kJ (2,400 kcal) of food per person. Strict survival discipline mandates no water consumption during the first 24 hours. When signaling for rescue, pyrotechnics and electronic beacons (406 MHz EPIRB and 9 GHz SART) must be deployed methodically. During helicopter evacuation, static electricity must be discharged before touching the winch hook, and the hoist line must never be secured to the craft.

1. SOLAS Survival Craft Inventory: Pack A vs. Pack B

SOLAS defines two primary equipment scales for survival craft based on voyage duration and distance from land:

• SOLAS Pack A: Mandatory for all cargo and passenger ships on international or unrestricted voyages. Contains full rations, water, and signaling gear.
• SOLAS Pack B: Permitted on passenger ships on short international voyages (within 24 hours of a port of refuge). Contains reduced pyrotechnics and eliminates food and fresh water provisions.

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|                     SOLAS PACK A COMPLETE INVENTORY                     |
|                                                                         |
|  [ Hydration & Nutrition ]                                              |
|  * 1.5 Liters Fresh Water per person (airtight sealed pouches)          |
|  * 10,000 kJ (2,400 kcal) High-Carb Food Rations per person             |
|  * 6 Anti-Seasickness Tablets & 1 Sick Bag per person                   |
|                                                                         |
|  [ Thermal & Medical Protection ]                                       |
|  * Thermal Protective Aids (TPAs) for >= 10% of capacity (min 2)        |
|  * 1 Waterproof SOLAS First Aid Kit                                     |
|                                                                         |
|  [ Distress Pyrotechnics ]                                              |
|  * 4 Rocket Parachute Flares (300m altitude, 40s burn, 30,000 cd)       |
|  * 6 Hand Flares (1 min burn, 15,000 cd)                                |
|  * 2 Buoyant Smoke Signals (3 min orange smoke, daytime)                |
|                                                                         |
|  [ Craft Maintenance & Signaling ]                                      |
|  * 1 Buoyant Blunt Safety Knife (lanyard-attached near entrance)        |
|  * 1 Buoyant Bailer & 2 Sponges                                         |
|  * 1 Manual Bellows / Topping Pump & Repair Clamps/Plugs                |
|  * 1 Daylight Signaling Mirror (Heliograph) & 1 SOLAS Whistle           |
|  * 1 Waterproof LED Torch with spare batteries & 1 Radar Reflector      |
|  * 2 Sea Anchors (Drogues) with hawsers & 1 Set of Fishing Tackle      |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------+

Critical Equipment Features

• Thermal Protective Aids (TPAs): Made of aluminized waterproof material meeting the current LSA Code thermal-conductance limit of 7,800 W/(m²·K). Encloses the entire body of a survivor wearing a lifejacket (except the face), reflecting body heat and reducing conductive/evaporative heat loss in cold survival craft.
• Buoyant Safety Knife: Kept in a pocket near the canopy entrance attached by a lanyard. Engineered with a blunt, rounded tip to prevent accidental puncturing of the buoyancy tubes when cutting the painter line in an emergency.
• Repair Clamps & Plugs: Conical wooden plugs and screw-type rubber clamps to immediately seal tube punctures from wreckage or bullet/shrapnel holes.

2. Survival Routine & Metabolic Management in Survival Craft

Survival in a liferaft depends directly on group discipline, water conservation, and physiological management.

The First 24-Hour Hydration Rule

• Rule: No drinking water is issued during the first 24 hours in the liferaft (except to casualties suffering from severe burns, major blood loss, or preexisting dehydration).
• Physiological Justification:
  1. The human body naturally enters a state of antidiuresis following emergency shock, conserving fluid.
  2. Vestibular disturbances cause severe seasickness during the first 24 hours; any ingested water is immediately vomited up, expelling critical gastric electrolytes and accelerating systemic dehydration.
• Immediate Medication: Issue anti-seasickness tablets (dimenhydrinate/meclizine) immediately upon boarding before nausea begins, as oral medication cannot be retained or absorbed once vomiting starts.

Daily Water Rationing Protocol (Day 2 Onward)

• Ration: 500 ml (0.5 liters) per person per day, divided into three distinct administrations (approx. 165 ml at sunrise, midday, and sunset).
• Ingestion Technique: Survivors must moisten their lips, rinse and swish the water inside the mouth, and swallow in tiny sips to maximize oral mucosal absorption.

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|                        STRICT FLUID PROHIBITIONS                        |
|                                                                         |
|  ❌ NEVER DRINK SEAWATER:                                               |
|     Seawater salinity is ~3.5% (35,000 ppm). Human kidneys can only    |
|     concentrate salt to ~2.0%. Ingesting seawater draws fluid from body |
|     tissues to flush excess salt, causing rapid cellular dehydration,   |
|     hallucinations, kidney failure, and death.                          |
|                                                                         |
|  ❌ NEVER DRINK URINE:                                                  |
|     Contains toxic concentrated urea, creatinine, and heavy electrolytes.|
|                                                                         |
|  ❌ NEVER DRINK ALCOHOL:                                                |
|     Suppresses Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH), inducing massive osmotic     |
|     diuresis, rapid dehydration, and peripheral vasodilation.           |
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Daily Survival Craft Routine & Duties

1. Establish Continuous Watchkeeping: Maintain a 24/7 lookout (one lookout forward, one aft) to scan for rescue vessels, aircraft, and floating hazards.
2. Bailing and Drying: Bail out all seawater using the bailer and sponges; keeping the floor dry prevents skin maceration and conductive cooling.
3. Canopy Ventilation: Open canopy flaps to ventilate stale air and prevent toxic carbon dioxide accumulation, but close flaps during cold weather or heavy spray.
4. Maintain Buoyancy Pressure: Buoyancy tubes contract at night as the gas cools. Use the manual topping pump / bellows to restore tube firmness each evening.

3. Distress Pyrotechnics: Specifications & Firing Protocols

Pyrotechnics are visual distress signals that must be husbanded carefully and fired only when there is a realistic probability of detection by approaching ships or aircraft.

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|                     PYROTECHNIC SAFETY PROTOCOLS                        |
|                                                                         |
|  1. Always face downwind when operating hand flares and smoke signals   |
|  2. Hold hand flares over the gunwale so burning slag drops into sea    |
|  3. Never fire rocket flares through or near the liferaft canopy        |
|  4. Conserve pyrotechnics until a rescue vessel/aircraft is seen/heard  |
|  5. Never look directly into the firing muzzle of any pyrotechnic       |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------+

4. Electronic Distress Beacons (EPIRB, SART & AIS-SART)

Electronic radio transmitters provide automated worldwide distress alerting and precise terminal homing for Search and Rescue (SAR) assets.

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|               GMDSS SURVIVAL CRAFT ELECTRONIC TRANSMITTERS              |
|                                                                         |
|  [ 406 MHz EPIRB ]                                                      |
|  * Satellite distress beacon to Cospas-Sarsat (LEO/GEO/MEO)             |
|  * Transmits digital MMSI identity + GPS coordinates (100m accuracy)    |
|  * Includes 121.5 MHz analog homing beacon                              |
|  * Operates continuously for >= 48 hours at -20°C                       |
|                                                                         |
|  [ 9 GHz X-Band SART ]                                                  |
|  * Interrogated by marine X-band (3 cm) radar pulses                    |
|  * Displays 12 distinct blips / arcs on searching vessel radar          |
|  * Battery: >= 96 hours standby + 8 hours active transponding           |
|  * Must be mounted >= 1 meter above sea level on telescopic pole        |
|                                                                         |
|  [ AIS-SART ]                                                           |
|  * Transmits AIS emergency position messages on VHF channels            |
|  * Displays on ECDIS / Radar screens as a circle with an 'X' (970xxxxxx)|
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SART Radar Display Mechanics

When a searching ship's 9 GHz (3 cm X-band) radar sweeps across an active SART, the SART immediately responds with 12 swept-frequency pulses:

1. Long Range (> 1 NM to 8 NM): The searching radar displays a line of 12 distinct dots/blips spaced 0.64 nautical miles apart, extending along the line of bearing away from the SART's true position.
2. Close Range (< 1 NM): As the rescue vessel approaches within 1 nautical mile, the 12 dots expand into 12 concentric circular arcs. When directly alongside, they form complete concentric circles, signaling immediate proximity.

5. Helicopter Rescue Operations (SAR)

Helicopter evacuation from a vessel or survival craft is one of the most hazardous operations in maritime rescue. Strict adherence to aeronautical safety rules is essential.

Vessel Course & Relative Wind Positioning

• Steering Direction: The vessel should maintain a steady speed on a heading that places the relative wind 30° to 45° on the PORT bow.
• Aeronautical Reason: Most maritime rescue helicopters (such as the MH-60 Jayhawk) have their winch hoist mounted on the starboard side. Placing wind on the ship's port bow provides the helicopter pilot with smooth, non-turbulent updrafts, keeps funnel exhaust away from the rescue zone, and gives the pilot clear visual reference of the vessel's deck.

Static Electricity Discharge (The Golden Rule)

• The Threat: Helicopter rotor blades generate massive static electrical charges (up to 50,000 volts) through atmospheric friction and rotor downwash.
• The Rule: NEVER touch the winch wire, hook, or rescue harness until it has made physical contact with the water surface or the ship's steel deck.
• Touching an ungrounded hook delivers a severe, potentially fatal electric shock that can knock a survivor unconscious or cause involuntary muscle spasms.

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|                    HELICOPTER HOISTING SAFETY RULES                     |
|                                                                         |
|  ⚡ DISCHARGE STATIC ELECTRICITY:                                       |
|     Allow winch hook to touch water or deck before touching barehanded. |
|                                                                         |
|  🚫 NEVER SECURE THE HOIST CABLE:                                       |
|     NEVER tie, lash, or wrap the winch wire or hi-line to any part of   |
|     the liferaft or ship. If the craft rolls or helicopter pulls away,  |
|     a secured cable will capsize the raft or drag down the aircraft.    |
|                                                                         |
|  🪢 HI-LINE TECHNIQUE:                                                  |
|     Haul in the weighted guide line by hand; coil loosely into a        |
|     bucket or floor space; do not take turns around cleats or wrists.   |
|                                                                         |
|  🦺 SINGLE RESCUE STROP:                                                |
|     Place strop over head and under armpits; cross arms firmly over     |
|     chest; NEVER raise arms during the lift (survivor will slip out).   |
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Rescue Devices & Casualty Handling

1. Single Rescue Strop: Standard for able-bodied survivors. Pass the loop over the head and position it high under both armpits. Pull the padded toggle tight, cross both arms tightly over the chest, and keep them clamped down throughout the hoist.
2. Double Strop: Features an upper loop under the armpits and a second saddle loop beneath the thighs, maintaining a semi-seated horizontal posture to prevent post-immersion orthostatic shock.
3. Rescue Basket / Net: Ideal for uninjured personnel, elderly, and children. The survivor climbs inside, sits on the bottom, and keeps hands inside the frame.
4. Neil Robertson Stretcher: Rigid spinal splint stretcher used for immobilized, unconscious, or spinal-trauma casualties.