12.2 Political Science: The Constitution, Branches of Government, Federalism & Citizenship

Political Science on Stanford 10

Political Science is one of the four equally weighted Social Science content clusters (10 of 40 items on a real Intermediate 3 report). Pearson says the political science component "helps assess students' basic understanding of the U.S. system of government as outlined in the National Standards for Civics and Government." At the youngest levels this means rules, fairness and community leaders; by the upper levels it means the Constitution, the three branches, federalism, rights and the responsibilities of citizens.

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The U.S. Constitution, Compromises, and the Bill of Rights

Following the revolution, the young nation operated under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789). The Articles established an intentionally weak unicameral national legislature lacking an executive leader, a federal judiciary, the power to collect taxes, or the authority to regulate interstate trade. Shays' Rebellion (1786)—an armed uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers—exposed the federal government's inability to maintain domestic order, prompting delegates to convene the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia.

The Great Compromise and Key Agreements

• The Virginia Plan vs. The New Jersey Plan: Large states advocated representation proportional to population (Virginia Plan); small states demanded equal representation per state (New Jersey Plan).
• The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise): Created a bicameral legislature: the Senate gives every state two equal senators, while the House of Representatives allocates seats proportionally based on state population.
• The Three-Fifths Compromise: Resolved disputes over representation and taxation by counting three-fifths of enslaved persons toward a state's total population.
• The Bill of Rights (1791): To win ratification from skeptical Anti-Federalists who feared federal tyranny, Federalists pledged to append ten amendments protecting basic individual liberties, including freedom of speech, press, and religion (First Amendment), protection against unreasonable searches (Fourth Amendment), and rights against self-incrimination and double jeopardy (Fifth Amendment).

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The Three Branches of Government and Checks and Balances

To prevent tyranny and consolidate liberty, the U.S. Constitution separates federal authority into three distinct, co-equal branches (Articles I, II, and III):

                         [ Legislative Branch ]
                           (Congress: Senate
                             & House of Reps)
                             /            \
        Passes laws, can    /              \  Confirms judicial
        override veto with /                \ nominees; can impeach
        2/3 vote; approves/                  \ judges; sets court
        appointments &   /                    \ jurisdiction
        treaties; holds /                      \
        power of purse /                        \
                      v                          v
             [ Executive Branch ] <----------> [ Judicial Branch ]
            (President, Cabinet,   President   (Supreme Court &
              Federal Agencies)    nominates   Federal Courts)
                                   judges;     
                                   can pardon  Judicial Review:
                                               Declares laws and
                                               executive orders
                                               unconstitutional

• Legislative Branch (Article I - Congress): Writes and passes federal statutory laws, levies taxes, allocates federal spending ("power of the purse"), declares war, and approves presidential treaties and judicial nominations.
• Executive Branch (Article II - President): Enforces and administers federal laws, serves as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, conducts foreign diplomacy, and appoints federal judges and cabinet officials.
• Judicial Branch (Article III - Supreme Court & Federal Courts): Interprets statutory laws and resolves legal disputes. Through judicial review (formally established in the 1803 landmark case Marbury v. Madison), federal courts hold the constitutional power to declare legislative acts or executive orders null and void if they violate the Constitution.

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Federalism: Levels of Government

Power in the United States is divided between the national (federal) government and the states, with local governments created by the states:

Some powers are shared, such as collecting taxes and building roads.

How a Bill Becomes a Federal Law

1. A member of Congress introduces a bill in the House or the Senate.
2. A committee studies it, holds hearings and may change it.
3. Both houses must pass the same version by majority vote.
4. The President signs it into law or vetoes it.
5. Congress can override a veto with a two-thirds vote in both houses, and courts can later review whether the law is constitutional.

Flowchart items often show these steps and ask what happens next, a typical Organization, Summarization & Interpretation of Information task.

Rights and Key Amendments

Beyond the Bill of Rights (Amendments 1-10), several amendments expanded who can take part in government: the 13th (1865) abolished slavery, the 14th (1868) guaranteed citizenship and equal protection, the 15th (1870) barred denying the vote because of race, the 19th (1920) guaranteed women's right to vote, and the 26th (1971) lowered the voting age to 18. Amending the Constitution is deliberately difficult: an amendment needs a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress and ratification by three-fourths of the states, under the usual method.

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Civic Rights, Duties, and Responsibilities

Students should be able to tell mandatory civic duties from voluntary civic responsibilities:

• Mandatory Civic Duties (Enforceable by Law): Obeying local, state, and federal laws; paying local, property, and income taxes; serving on a trial jury when summoned; testifying as a witness in court; registering for Selective Service (for males aged 18); and attending compulsory schooling.
• Voluntary Civic Responsibilities (Vital for Democracy): Casting an informed vote in public elections, engaging in peaceful political debate, communicating with elected representatives, volunteering in community civic organizations, and respecting the diverse opinions of others.