8.3 Syntax, Sentence Combining, & Mechanics Instruction

Foundations of Syntax & Grammar in Elementary Literacy

Syntax refers to the rule-governed system that dictates how words are arranged into phrases, clauses, and sentences to convey meaning. In oral language, children internalize basic syntactic structures naturally through exposure and conversational turn-taking. However, written syntax is significantly more formal, dense, and complex than conversational speech. Elementary writers must transition from producing simple, repetitive oral-like utterances to crafting sophisticated sentences featuring varied clause structures, precise modifiers, and accurate mechanical conventions.

Core Syntactic Roles

Every complete English sentence is organized around two essential syntactic constituents:

1. Subject: The naming part of the sentence—the person, place, thing, or concept that performs the action or is described. It contains the simple subject (noun or pronoun) and any modifiers.
2. Predicate: The telling part of the sentence—the assertion made about the subject. It contains the finite verb (simple predicate), its objects, complements, and adverbial modifiers.
3. Direct Object: A noun, pronoun, or clause that receives the direct action of a transitive verb (e.g., The scientist observed the [bacteria]).
4. Indirect Object: A noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or for whom the action of the verb is performed (e.g., The teacher gave [Marcus] a certificate).

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The Four Structural Sentence Types

To develop syntactic flexibility, students must learn to recognize, analyze, and construct four distinct sentence types based on clause composition.

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Evidence-Based Syntax Instruction: Sentence Combining & Expansion

Why Decontextualized Grammar Drills Fail

Decades of empirical meta-analyses (including Graham & Perin's Writing Next and research by Bruce Saddler and William Van Cleave) demonstrate that traditional grammar instruction—such as circling parts of speech on worksheets, diagramming sentences in isolation, or memorizing abstract definitions—has zero or negative impact on students' actual writing quality. Isolated grammar drills do not transfer to composition.

In contrast, explicit sentence-level instruction—specifically Sentence Combining and Sentence Expansion—produces powerful, statistically significant gains in writing quality, reading comprehension, and syntactic maturity.

Sentence Combining (William Van Cleave & Bruce Saddler)

Sentence combining is an instructional method where students manipulate, merge, and transform multiple short, kernel sentences into a single, cohesive, syntactically complex sentence. It explicitly teaches students how connectors signal logical relationships:

1. Combining with Coordinating Conjunctions (Compound):
   • Kernel 1: The sun was blazing hot.
   • Kernel 2: The hikers drank plenty of water.
   • Combined: The sun was blazing hot, so the hikers drank plenty of water. (Relationship: Cause & Effect)
2. Combining with Subordinating Conjunctions (Complex):
   • Kernel 1: The electricity went out.
   • Kernel 2: A lightning bolt struck the transformer.
   • Combined: The electricity went out because a lightning bolt struck the transformer. (Relationship: Cause)
   • Combined (Inverted): Because a lightning bolt struck the transformer, the electricity went out.
3. Combining by Embedding Appositives and Modifiers:
   • Kernel 1: Mr. Henderson is our principal.
   • Kernel 2: Mr. Henderson greeted students at the front door.
   • Combined: Mr. Henderson, our principal, greeted students at the front door.

Sentence Expansion Using Kernel Sentences

Sentence expansion teaches students to enrich simple kernel sentences by answering interrogative wh- questions (who, what, where, when, why, how):

• Kernel Sentence: The dog barked.
• Which dog? (Adjective) → The shaggy golden retriever
• Where? (Prepositional Phrase) → at the front window
• When? (Adverbial Phrase) → Late last night
• Why? (Subordinate Clause) → because a raccoon knocked over the trash can
• Expanded Sentence: Late last night, the shaggy golden retriever barked at the front window because a raccoon knocked over the trash can.

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Diagnosing and Remediating Structural Syntactic & Mechanical Breakdowns

                    DIAGNOSING SENTENCE-LEVEL ERRORS
                    
  [ Student Sentence ]
          │
          ├──> Missing Subject or Predicate / Isolated Dependent Clause? ──> SENTENCE FRAGMENT
          │    (Fix: Attach to independent clause or add missing subject/verb)
          │
          ├──> Two Independent Clauses Joined ONLY by a Comma? ──────────> COMMA SPLICE
          │    (Fix: Add comma + FANBOYS, replace with semicolon, or use period)
          │
          └──> Two Independent Clauses Joined with NO Punctuation? ──────> FUSED RUN-ON
               (Fix: Separate with punctuation and coordinating/subordinating conjunction)

1. Sentence Fragments

A fragment is an incomplete sentence masquerading as a complete one. It either lacks a subject, lacks a finite predicate, or is a dependent clause left standing alone:

• Error: Because the river flooded its banks during the spring thaw.
• Remediation: Teach students that words like because, although, since are 'subordinating hitchhikers' that make a clause dependent. It must be attached to an independent clause: Because the river flooded its banks during the spring thaw, the nearby roads were closed.

2. Comma Splices & Fused Run-on Sentences

• Comma Splice: Two independent clauses joined only with a comma without a coordinating conjunction (The storm was fierce, the ship reached the harbor safely).
• Fused Run-on: Two independent clauses merged with no punctuation whatsoever (The storm was fierce the ship reached the harbor safely).
• Three Valid Remediation Pathways:
  1. Add a comma and coordinating conjunction: The storm was fierce, but the ship reached the harbor safely.
  2. Use a semicolon: The storm was fierce; the ship reached the harbor safely.
  3. Separate into two simple sentences: The storm was fierce. The ship reached the harbor safely.

3. Mechanics and Conventions

• Capitalization: First word of sentences, proper nouns (specific people, places, organizations), days/months, and major words in titles.
• Punctuation Rules:
  • Series / Oxford Comma: Commas separating three or more items in a list (apples, bananas, and oranges).
  • Introductory Clauses: Comma after an introductory dependent clause or prepositional phrase of 4+ words (In the middle of the dark forest, the owl hooted).
  • Direct Dialogue: Comma before quotation marks (She whispered, "Look over there.").
• Apostrophes:
  • Singular Possessive: Add 's (the dog's leash).
  • Plural Possessive ending in s: Add apostrophe only (the dogs' leashes).
  • Irregular Plural Possessive: Add 's (the children's toys, the women's coats).
  • Possessive Pronouns vs. Contractions: It's = it is (contraction); its = possessive pronoun (no apostrophe).

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Classroom Diagnostic Scenario & Instructional Planning

Scenario: A third-grade teacher reviews a student's informative paragraph: "The volcano erupted. It shot lava into the sky. Ash covered the village, the people evacuated quickly. Because it was dangerous."

Diagnostic Breakdown:

1. Choppy simple sentences: "The volcano erupted. It shot lava into the sky." (Demonstrates lack of syntactic variety).
2. Comma splice: "Ash covered the village, the people evacuated quickly." (Two independent clauses joined only by a comma).
3. Sentence fragment: "Because it was dangerous." (Isolated subordinate clause).

Targeted Instructional Protocol:

1. Conduct a mini-lesson on Sentence Combining using subordinating conjunctions (when, because) and coordinating conjunctions (and, so).
2. Model combining the first two sentences: "When the volcano erupted, it shot fiery lava into the sky."
3. Model fixing the comma splice and fragment together: "Ash covered the village, so the people evacuated quickly because it was dangerous."