8.2 Signing Exact English (SEE II): Principles, Affixes, Morpheme Inventions, and Classroom Use

8.2 Signing Exact English (SEE II): Principles, Affixes, Morpheme Inventions, and Classroom Use

Quick Answer: Signing Exact English (SEE II), created in 1972 by Dr. Gerilee Gustason, Esther Zawolkow, and Donna Pfetzing, is the most widely adopted Manually Coded English system in American public schools. Its core vocabulary selection is governed by the Two-out-of-Three (2/3) Rule: if any two of three linguistic criteria—sound (pronunciation), spelling (orthography), and meaning (semantics)—are identical, the exact same manual sign must be used, deliberately overriding ASL conceptual accuracy (e.g., using the same sign for "right hand" and "right answer"). SEE II incorporates more than 70 invented bound affixes (such as un-, re-, -ing, -ed, -ly, -tion), mandates initialized signs for English synonym families (e.g., GROUP, TEAM, CLASS, FAMILY), and enforces verbatim signing of English copulas (am, is, are, was, were, be, been) and articles (a, an, the). If a student's Individualized Education Program (IEP) mandates SEE II, the educational interpreter is legally bound to provide that modality, despite physical production limits that frequently cause 30% to 50% morpheme omission during rapid classroom lectures.

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1. The Architecture and Evolution of Signing Exact English (SEE II)

Following the ideological fracture of David Anthony's Seeing Essential English (SEE I) group in the early 1970s, Dr. Gerilee Gustason, Esther Zawolkow, and Donna Pfetzing established Signing Exact English (SEE II) in 1972. Gustason and her colleagues argued that Anthony's SEE I system was too extreme in its decomposition of English words into radical phonetic morphemes (such as signing CAR + PET for carpet or BUTTER + FLY for butterfly). They recognized that decomposing words in this manner alienated native signers, created visual chaos for deaf children, and severed connections to established sign vocabulary.

SEE II was engineered as a pragmatic compromise with three overarching structural objectives:

1. Retain Traditional ASL Lexical Roots: Wherever feasible, SEE II preserves standard ASL root signs for core nouns and verbs (e.g., dog, tree, eat, walk).
2. Enforce English Linear Morphology: English grammatical relationships must be represented through explicit, linear bound morphemes affixed directly to base roots, rather than through spatial modulation or facial non-manual markers.
3. Provide Systematic English Vocabulary Selection: In place of the intuitive conceptual sign selection practiced in ASL, SEE II established rigid, rule-governed linguistic formulas—chief among them the Two-out-of-Three Rule—to dictate which sign must be used for any given English word.

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2. The Two-out-of-Three (2/3) Rule: Mechanics, Logic, and Semantic Divergence

The absolute cornerstone of SEE II lexicography tested on the EIPA Written Exam is the Two-out-of-Three (2/3) Rule. Under this rule, English words are analyzed across three distinct linguistic dimensions:

                         [ English Word Under Evaluation ]
                                        │
                ┌───────────────────────┼───────────────────────┐
                ▼                       ▼                       ▼
            1. SOUND               2. SPELLING              3. MEANING
         (Pronunciation)          (Orthography)            (Semantics)
                │                       │                       │
                └───────────────────────┼───────────────────────┘
                                        ▼
                         [ Do at least 2 of 3 match? ]
                                        │
                        ┌───────────────┴───────────────┐
                        ▼                               ▼
                    [ YES ]                          [ NO ]
             (2 or 3 criteria match)         (0 or 1 criterion matches)
                        │                               │
                        ▼                               ▼
                USE THE SAME SIGN               USE DIFFERENT SIGNS
          (Conceptual meaning ignored!)    (Distinct base signs created)

The Formulation of the 2/3 Rule

If any two of the three criteria—sound, spelling, and meaning—are identical between two English words or usages, one single, identical sign must be used for both. If only one criterion matches (or none match), different signs must be used.

In-Depth Linguistic Examples of the 2/3 Rule in Practice

Example 1: "Right" (Direction vs. Correctness)

• Sound: Pronounced identically (/raɪt/). Matches! [1]
• Spelling: Spelled identically (R-I-G-H-T). Matches! [2]
• Meaning: Different (directional orientation vs. factual correctness/accuracy). Does not match. [0]
• Outcome: 2 out of 3 match (Sound + Spelling). In SEE II, the exact same sign is used for both concepts (an initialized 'R' handshape or directional pointing). In natural ASL, these are two entirely different, unrelated signs (RIGHT for direction vs. CORRECT/TRUE for accuracy). SEE II forces a conceptual mismatch to preserve English orthographic and phonetic uniformity.

Example 2: "Run" (Physical Locomotion vs. Water Running vs. Political Campaign)

• Usage A: "The boy can run fast."
• Usage B: "The water is running in the sink."
• Usage C: "She decided to run for mayor."
• Sound: Pronounced identically (/rʌn/). Matches! [1]
• Spelling: Spelled identically (R-U-N). Matches! [2]
• Meaning: Completely different semantics (physical bipedal locomotion vs. fluid hydrodynamic movement vs. political candidacy). Does not match. [0]
• Outcome: 2 out of 3 match (Sound + Spelling). In SEE II, the signer must use the exact same sign (the two hands with hooked index fingers moving forward representing running legs) for all three sentences! To an ASL user, signing that water or a political campaign has physical legs is conceptually absurd, yet SEE II mandates this to maintain English word-level consistency.

Example 3: "Bow" (Ribbon in Hair vs. Bending to Royalty)

• Usage A: "She tied a pink bow in her hair."
• Usage B: "The knight will bow before the king."
• Sound: Pronounced differently (/boʊ/ for hair ribbon vs. /baʊ/ for bending). Does not match. [0]
• Spelling: Spelled identically (B-O-W). Matches! [1]
• Meaning: Different semantics (knotted ribbon vs. physical bending posture). Does not match. [0]
• Outcome: Only 1 out of 3 matches (Spelling only). Because only one criterion is identical, SEE II dictates that different signs must be used.

Example 4: "Bear" (Grizzly Bear) vs. "Bare" (Uncovered Feet)

• Sound: Pronounced identically (/bɛər/). Matches! [1]
• Spelling: Spelled differently (B-E-A-R vs. B-A-R-E). Does not match. [0]
• Meaning: Different semantics (an animal vs. naked/uncovered). Does not match. [0]
• Outcome: Only 1 out of 3 matches (Sound only). In SEE II, different signs are used for bear and bare.

Example 5: "Bear" (The Animal) vs. "Bear" (To Endure Hardship)

• Usage A: "A wild bear walked into the camp."
• Usage B: "I cannot bear this heavy burden."
• Sound: Pronounced identically (/bɛər/). Matches! [1]
• Spelling: Spelled identically (B-E-A-R). Matches! [2]
• Meaning: Different semantics (mammalian animal vs. cognitive/physical endurance). Does not match. [0]
• Outcome: 2 out of 3 match (Sound + Spelling). In SEE II, the exact same sign (crossing arms across the chest and scratching with claws) is used for both sentences! The child literally signs that they cannot "clawed-mammal" the heavy burden.

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3. The 70+ Invented Bound Affixes and Sequential Articulation

To represent English derivational and inflectional morphology without relying on ASL spatial modulation, Gustason and colleagues engineered over 70 invented bound affixes. These affixes are produced as discrete manual gestures appended to the base root in strict linear order:

Taxonomy of High-Frequency SEE II Bound Affixes

The Linear Concatenative Process

In natural ASL, grammatical modification is non-concatenative—it modifies the movement contour, speed, tension, or facial expression of the root sign itself (e.g., the sign STUDY modified with an elliptical movement and puffed cheeks to mean "studying continuously with great effort"). In SEE II, morphology is strictly concatenative: the root sign remains completely invariant, and the signer mechanically attaches separate prefix and suffix signs in chronological sequence.

Example: To sign the English word "unfaithfulness" in SEE II, the signer must execute four separate manual units: UN- (prefix) + FAITH (root) + -FUL (suffix 1) + -NESS (suffix 2).

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4. Initialized Signs and Verbatim English Copulas

In addition to bound affixes, SEE II enforces two major structural mechanisms that frequently appear on the EIPA Written Exam: initialized sign families and verbatim copula production.

Initialized Signs for English Synonym Differentiation

In spoken English, extensive synonym sets exist for common concepts. To teach deaf students the specific English orthographic word chosen by a speaker, SEE II utilizes initialized handshapes—taking a single, common ASL base root movement and altering the handshape to match the first letter of the target English word:

1. The Group Family: The two hands begin together in front of the chest and trace a circular horizontal path outward until the fingertips touch, forming an enclosed circle. SEE II differentiates English synonyms using handshapes:
   • Handshape G = GROUP
   • Handshape T = TEAM
   • Handshape C = CLASS
   • Handshape F = FAMILY
   • Handshape A = ASSOCIATION
   • Handshape D = DEPARTMENT
   • Handshape O = ORGANIZATION
   • Handshape S = SOCIETY
2. The Emotion/Feeling Family: The dominant hand brushes upward against the center of the chest:
   • Handshape H = HAPPY
   • Handshape C = CONTENT
   • Handshape G = GLAD
   • Handshape P = PLEASED
3. The Institutional Law Family: The dominant hand taps the non-dominant palm vertically:
   • Handshape L = LAW
   • Handshape R = RULE
   • Handshape P = POLICY
   • Handshape C = CANON

Verbatim English Copulas and Auxiliary Verbs (The Verb "To Be")

In natural ASL, the English copula (the verb "to be") does not exist. An ASL sentence such as "The woman is a doctor" is rendered as WOMAN DOCTOR paired with a declarative affirmative head nod. SEE II, however, mandates that every single form of the verb "to be" must be signed explicitly using standardized handshapes placed at or touching the chin:

• AM = 'A' handshape moving outward from the chin.
• IS = 'I' handshape moving outward from the chin.
• ARE = 'R' handshape moving outward from the chin.
• WAS = 'W' handshape touching chin, pulling backward over the dominant shoulder.
• WERE = 'W' handshape touching chin, transitioning to 'R' moving backward.
• BE = 'B' handshape moving outward from the chin.
• BEEN = 'B' handshape touching chin, moving forward and transitioning into 'N'.
• BEING = 'B' handshape touching chin, followed immediately by the -ING suffix sign.

Furthermore, SEE II mandates explicit manual signs for English articles: A (index finger pointing up or 'A' handshape), AN (fingerspelled or initialized), and THE ('T' handshape twisting outward from the wrist).

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5. Neuromuscular Speed Limits, Interpreter Fatigue, and Morpheme Omission

A critical competency assessed on the EIPA is the candidate's understanding of cognitive load, physical fatigue, and the biomechanics of interpreting:

   Spoken English Velocity: 130 – 180 Words per Minute (Rapid, Fine-Motor Syllables)
                                        │
                                        ▼
   Verbatim SEE II Multiplication Factor: 2.0x – 2.5x Increase in Manual Articulations
   (Root Words + Bound Prefixes + Bound Suffixes + Copulas + Articles)
                                        │
                                        ▼
   Physical Motor Bottleneck: Human Arms Cannot Maintain 5–6 Movements / Sec
                                        │
         ┌──────────────────────────────┴──────────────────────────────┐
         ▼                                                             ▼
   Linguistic Breakdown:                                         Physical Trauma:
   • 30% to 50% of affixes dropped                               • Chronic Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)
   • Tenses & articles omitted                                   • Carpal Tunnel Syndrome & Tendinitis
   • Ungrammatical fragments delivered                           • Rotator Cuff & Neck Strain

The Kinematic Bottleneck

Spoken English conveys rapid sequential syllables through microscopic, high-speed contractions of fine oral musculature. The human arms, wrists, and fingers, however, are massive gross-motor limbs by comparison. Biomechanical research demonstrates that when an educational interpreter attempts to sign verbatim SEE II at conversational speaking speeds (140–180 wpm):

• The interpreter must produce between 4 and 6 discrete physical hand movements per second.
• The human neuromuscular system cannot maintain this kinematic frequency over extended classroom periods without severe physical breakdown.
• The Inevitable Morpheme Drop: To prevent catastrophic physical collapse, the interpreter's brain engages in involuntary subconscious filtering, shedding up to 50% of bound affixes, verb copulas, and articles (Schick & Williams). Consequently, the student sitting in class does not receive the complete English model intended by the IEP team.
• Occupational Health Crisis: Educational interpreters working in full-time MCE/SEE II placements exhibit the highest rates of Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI), carpal tunnel syndrome, lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow), and cervical spine degeneration in the interpreting profession.

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6. Special Education Law, the IEP Mandate, and the EIPA MCE Option

One of the most heavily tested legal and ethical dilemmas on the EIPA Written Test centers on the conflict between an interpreter's personal linguistic philosophy and the legal mandates of the school district.

The Legal Binding of the IEP under IDEA

Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 34 CFR § 300.324(a)(2)(iv)), the multidisciplinary Individualized Education Program (IEP) team is legally required to:

"Consider the communication needs of the child, and in the case of a child who is deaf or hard of hearing, consider the child's language and communication needs, opportunities for direct communications with peers and professional personnel in the child's language and communication mode..."

If the IEP team formalizes that the student's communication mode is Manually Coded English / SEE II:

• No Unilateral Alterations: The educational interpreter does not have the legal authority to unilaterally abandon SEE II and interpret in ASL, regardless of the interpreter's personal beliefs regarding bilingualism or natural language acquisition.
• Ethical Adherence: Under the EIPA Guidelines for Professional Conduct and the NAIE Code of Ethics, the interpreter must faithfully provide the IEP-designated communication mode.

Protocol for Student Comprehension Breakdown

What must an interpreter do if they observe that a student does not understand SEE II affixes or is falling behind academically?

1. Document Concrete Observations: Record specific instructional instances where morphemic confusion occurred (e.g., student unable to complete worksheets due to affix confusion).
2. Collaborate with the Educational Team: Meet with the Teacher of the Deaf (TOD) and the classroom teacher to share diagnostic communication data.
3. Request an IEP Review: Advocate that the multidisciplinary team reconvene to formally assess whether the student requires a transition to Contact Sign, CASE, or American Sign Language.

The EIPA MCE Evaluation Option

When registering for the EIPA Performance Test, candidates select the sign language or system they use: ASL, PSE, or Manually Coded English (MCE), the family that includes SEE II and Signed English. The selection governs both how the expressive sample is judged and which child or teen signer appears in the receptive sample. Candidates who select MCE are rated on the evaluation-form item Consistent Use of English Morphological Markers, which applies to English sign systems only and is marked NA for candidates testing in ASL. Boys Town also states plainly that the resulting evaluation applies only to the grade level and sign system selected and recommends re-evaluation when changing target sign system or language.

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7. Realistic K-12 Classroom Scenarios

Scenario A: Elementary Morphology Lesson (Direct Curriculum Alignment)

In a 3rd-grade general education reading block, the teacher instructs students on base words and bound morphemes, writing on the board: help, helper, helpful, unhelpful, helplessly.

• Instructional Execution: Because the lesson focuses explicitly on English orthographic morphology, the educational interpreter utilizes SEE II. The interpreter signs the base root HELP, followed sequentially by the agentive suffix -ER, the adjectival suffix -FUL, the negative prefix UN-, and the adverbial suffix -LY.
• Classroom Advantage: In this specific pedagogical context, SEE II provides direct visual-orthographic reinforcement that matches the teacher's printed worksheets and blackboard instruction, allowing the deaf student to participate in the morphological decomposition exercise alongside hearing classmates.

Scenario B: Middle School History Lecture (Pacing Crisis and Affix Shedding)

In an 8th-grade American History class, the teacher speaks passionately at 175 words per minute: "The presidential administration was actively contemplating the immediate reconstruction of southern transportation systems."

• Articulatory Reality: The sentence contains 12 words but requires 26 distinct manual articulatory units in SEE II (including -al, -tion, WAS, -ive, -ly, -ing, -ate, -tion, OF, -tion, -s).
• Interpreter Breakdown: The interpreter physically cannot produce 26 manual movements in 4 seconds. The interpreter involuntarily drops WAS, -ly, -ate, and OF.
• Educational Analysis: The interpreter realizes that attempting verbatim manual English during high-speed academic lectures degrades message clarity. Following the class, the interpreter meets with the Teacher of the Deaf to discuss instructional pacing and visual scaffolding strategies.

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8. Exam Traps & Strategic Distinctions

[!CAUTION] Exam Trap 1: Assuming Meaning Trumps Sound and Spelling in the 2/3 Rule. A common error on the EIPA Written Test is assuming that if two words have completely different conceptual meanings, they cannot use the same sign in SEE II. Remember: the rule is strictly mathematical. If Sound and Spelling match, Meaning is completely irrelevant—the words must use the identical sign (e.g., right direction vs. right answer).

[!WARNING] Exam Trap 2: Unilateral Interpreter Independence. When exam questions present a scenario where a student does not understand SEE II, incorrect answer choices will suggest that the interpreter should "switch to ASL immediately without telling anyone." In special education law, altering the communication mode without an IEP team decision violates federal compliance.

[!NOTE] Exam Trap 3: Confusing Initialized Signs with Natural ASL Lexical Borrowing. While natural ASL incorporates some initialized signs (e.g., FAMILY, CLASS), SEE II expands initialization systematically across hundreds of English synonym families to enforce exact English word-choice discrimination.