7.1 ASL Phonology: The Five Parameters (Handshape, Movement, Location, Orientation, Non-Manuals)

7.1 ASL Phonology: The Five Parameters (Handshape, Movement, Location, Orientation, Non-Manuals)

Quick Answer: American Sign Language (ASL) is a natural, fully developed human language possessing an intricate phonological system. In 1960, linguist William C. Stokoe Jr. proved that ASL signs are not holistic gestures or pantomime, but are composed of discrete, meaningless, recombinable linguistic units—a design feature known in linguistics as duality of patterning. Every sign is formed through the precise combination of five phonological parameters: Handshape (DEZ), Location (TAB), Movement (SIG), Palm Orientation (ORI), and Non-Manual Signals (NMS). Minimal pairs (e.g., SUMMER, UGLY, and DRY, which differ solely in location) demonstrate that altering a single parameter alters lexical meaning. Two-handed signs are strictly governed by Battison's Symmetry and Dominance Conditions, while fluent discourse exhibits systematic phonological processes including assimilation, metathesis, movement epenthesis, and hold deletion.

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1. William Stokoe's 1960 Breakthrough: Sign Language as a Natural Language

For more than a century following the 1880 Milan Conference, deaf education and academic linguistics were dominated by oralist assumptions that dismissed signed communication as crude pantomime, iconic mimicry, or broken visual English. In 1960, Dr. William C. Stokoe Jr., a professor of English at Gallaudet College (now Gallaudet University), shattered these misconceptions with his groundbreaking monograph, Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf.

Stokoe demonstrated that American Sign Language exhibits the fundamental structural property that linguist Charles Hockett identified as unique to human language: duality of patterning (also called double articulation):

• Level 1 (Phonemes): A finite set of meaningless, discrete articulatory units.
• Level 2 (Morphemes / Words): Meaningless units combine systematically according to phonological rules to generate an infinite set of meaningful words, morphemes, and sentences.

Because spoken language phonology was historically defined exclusively in terms of acoustic sound waves (phone = sound), Stokoe coined the term cherology (from the Greek cheir, meaning hand) and termed the discrete components cheremes. However, modern cognitive linguistics recognized that the human brain's language faculty processes structural phonological units regardless of whether the physical modality is auditory-vocal or visual-gestural. Consequently, the field adopted the standard term phonology to emphasize the neurological equivalence of spoken and signed languages.

In 1965, Stokoe, Dorothy Casterline, and Carl Croneberg published A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles, providing the world's first linguistic dictionary of ASL organized phonologically rather than alphabetically by English translation.

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2. The Five Phonological Parameters of ASL

Stokoe originally identified three primary parameters of sign production. Later research by linguists including Robbin Battison (1978) established that a complete description of ASL phonology requires five simultaneous parameters:

                          [ ASL Sign Formation ]
                                     |
     +---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+---------------+
     |               |               |               |               |
[ Handshape ]   [ Location ]    [ Movement ]    [ Orientation ] [ Non-Manuals ]
   (DEZ)           (TAB)           (SIG)            (ORI)           (NMS)
  Config of       Anatomical     Spatial path,     Direction      Facial grammar,
  fingers &       or spatial      dynamics &       palm faces     eye gaze, head
  thumb           position        geometry         in space       tilt, mouthing

1. Handshape (DEZ — Designator)

• Definition: The configuration, flexion, extension, and crossing of the fingers and thumb.
• Inventory: Stokoe originally proposed 19 distinct handshapes represented by Latin alphanumeric symbols. Modern ASL phonology recognizes between 40 and 45 distinct handshape phonemes, with dozens of phonetic allophones (sub-phonemic variations conditioned by surrounding signs).
• Contrastive Nature: Substituting an open flat 'B' handshape for a closed 'A' fist transforms PLEASE into SORRY.

2. Location (TAB — Tabula)

• Definition: The specific physical site on the signer's body or the coordinate within signing space where the sign is articulated.
• Articulatory Zones: Major spatial locations include the upper face/forehead, mid-face/eyes/nose, lower face/chin/jaw, throat/neck, shoulder, chest/torso, non-dominant arm/wrist, and the neutral signing space in front of the torso.
• Contrastive Nature: Articulating a sign at the forehead versus the chin distinguishes FATHER from MOTHER.

3. Movement (SIG — Signation)

• Definition: The dynamic trajectory, internal articulation, or muscular action of the hand(s) through space.
• Movement Types: Straight, arc, circular, undulating, twisting, nodding, wiggling, reciprocating, contacting, and divergent. Movement also encompasses internal hand movements, such as opening, closing, or finger wiggling.
• Contrastive Nature: A single continuous downward contact denotes the verb SIT, whereas a small, repeated, restrained downward tapping denotes the noun CHAIR.

4. Palm Orientation (ORI)

• Definition: Added by Robbin Battison (1978), orientation specifies the direction toward which the palm and the metacarpal surface of the hand face relative to the signer's body and signing space.
• Orientational Values: Facing up (supine), facing down (prone), facing inward toward the signer's body, facing outward toward the addressee, facing contralateral (across the midline), or facing ipsilateral (same side as signing hand).
• Contrastive Nature: Articulating flat hands with palms facing downward denotes CHILDREN, whereas the identical handshape, location, and movement produced with palms facing upward denotes THINGS.

5. Non-Manual Signals / Non-Manual Markers (NMS / NMM)

• Definition: Obligatory linguistic signals produced by the face, eyes, eyebrows, head, mouth, and upper torso. Non-manuals function at both the phonological (lexical distinction) and syntactic levels.
• Mouth Morphemes: Specific mouth shapes that carry precise linguistic meaning, such as "mm" (effortless/normal), "cha" (very large/enormous), "cs" (close in proximity/time), "th" (carelessly/unintentionally), and "puff cheeks" (heavy/voluminous).
• Contrastive Nature: The manual sign LATE produced with a neutral facial expression denotes "late"; produced with the tongue slightly protruding between the teeth ("th") accompanied by a headshake, it denotes the distinct lexical item NOT-YET.

Matrix of the Five Phonological Parameters

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3. Minimal Pairs in ASL: Proving Phonemic Contrast

In spoken language linguistics, a minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only a single phonological feature (e.g., English pat and bat, which share identical vowel and coda phonemes but differ solely in the initial consonant's voicing: voiceless /p/ vs. voiced /b/). Minimal pairs provide indisputable scientific proof that an articulatory feature is phonemic rather than random motor variation.

In American Sign Language, a minimal pair consists of two signs that are identical in four parameters but differ by exactly one parameter:

Minimal Pairs Contrasting by Location Only

• SUMMER vs. UGLY vs. DRY:
  • All three signs share an identical initial handshape (index finger '1' transitioning to bent 'X'), identical palm orientation (facing downward), and identical horizontal pulling movement across the face.
  • SUMMER is articulated across the forehead.
  • UGLY is articulated across the nose and upper lip.
  • DRY is articulated across the chin.
• FATHER vs. MOTHER:
  • Both signs share an open '5' handshape, palm facing contralateral, tapping movement.
  • FATHER is articulated at the forehead.
  • MOTHER is articulated at the chin.
• APPLE vs. ONION:
  • Both signs share a bent 'X' handshape, palm facing inward/downward, twisting movement.
  • APPLE is articulated on the cheek.
  • ONION is articulated at the corner of the eye.

Minimal Pairs Contrasting by Handshape Only

• PLEASE vs. SORRY:
  • Both articulated on the chest, circular movement, palm facing inward toward torso.
  • PLEASE utilizes an open flat 'B' handshape.
  • SORRY utilizes a closed fist 'A' or 'S' handshape.
• CUTE vs. SWEET:
  • Both articulated on the chin with a downward double-brushing movement, palm facing inward.
  • CUTE utilizes a 'U' / 'H' handshape.
  • SWEET utilizes an open flat 'B' handshape.
• LIKE vs. WHITE:
  • Both articulated on the chest, pulling outward from the body.
  • LIKE utilizes an open-8 (middle finger bent) handshape pinching to the thumb.
  • WHITE utilizes an open '5' handshape collapsing to a flat-O.

Minimal Pairs Contrasting by Movement Only

• CHAIR vs. SIT:
  • Both share bent 'U' / 'H' handshapes, palms facing downward, articulated on the non-dominant base hand.
  • CHAIR (noun) displays small, repeated, restrained downward tapping movement.
  • SIT (verb) displays a single, continuous downward contact movement.
• NAME vs. SHORT:
  • Both share 'H' handshapes articulated across the fingers.
  • NAME displays a double tapping movement.
  • SHORT displays a single contact brushing or sliding movement.
• AIRPLANE vs. FLY-TO:
  • Both share the 'I-L-Y' handshape, palms facing downward in upper neutral space.
  • AIRPLANE displays double, repeated short forward pulses.
  • FLY-TO displays a single, elongated, continuous forward gliding movement.

Minimal Pairs Contrasting by Palm Orientation Only

• CHILDREN vs. THINGS:
  • Both share open flat 'B' handshapes, neutral signing space, downward double patting.
  • CHILDREN is articulated with palms facing DOWN.
  • THINGS is articulated with palms facing UP.
• MY / MINE vs. YOUR / YOURS:
  • Both share an open flat 'B' handshape and single outward or contacting motion on the chest level.
  • MY is articulated with the palm facing IN toward the signer.
  • YOUR is articulated with the palm facing OUT toward the addressee.

Minimal Pairs Contrasting by Non-Manual Signals Only

• LATE vs. NOT-YET:
  • Both share an open flat 'B' handshape, downward pointing orientation, flapping movement at the hip.
  • LATE is articulated with a neutral facial expression.
  • NOT-YET requires an obligatory mouth morpheme ("th" with tongue between teeth) and side-to-side headshake.

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4. Battison's Phonological Constraints on Two-Handed Signs

In his foundational 1978 linguistic study, Lexical Borrowing in American Sign Language, Robbin Battison investigated the anatomical and cognitive constraints governing signs produced with both hands. He proved that two-handed signs in ASL are not arbitrary, but are strictly governed by two universal phonological laws:

                          [ Two-Handed Signs in ASL ]
                                       |
                   +-------------------+-------------------+
                   |                                       |
      [ Do Both Hands Move? ]                [ Does Only One Hand Move? ]
                   |                                       |
                  YES                                     YES
                   |                                       |
        [ Symmetry Condition ]                  [ Dominance Condition ]
                   |                                       |
    • Identical Handshapes                  • Different Handshapes Allowed
    • Identical/Symmetrical Locations       • Dominant Hand Moves
    • Symmetrical or Alternating Movement   • Non-Dominant Hand Stationary Base
    • (e.g., PLAY, CAN, MAYBE)              • Base hand restricted to BASCO-1-5
                                              (e.g., WORD, DRAW, WRITE)

1. The Symmetry Condition

• The Rule: If both hands move independently during the articulation of a sign, both hands must satisfy three strict requirements:
  1. They must possess the exact same handshape.
  2. They must share the same or symmetrical spatial locations (e.g., mirrored on either side of the torso midline).
  3. They must execute identical symmetrical movement (moving together) or reciprocal/alternating movement (moving in alternating rhythm).
• Classroom Examples:
  • PLAY: Both hands in 'Y' handshape, symmetrical shaking movement.
  • CAN: Both hands in 'S' fist handshape, symmetrical downward drop.
  • MAYBE: Both hands in open 'B' handshape, alternating up-and-down weighing motion.
  • SINCE / UP-UNTIL-NOW: Both hands in '1' handshape, moving symmetrically from shoulders forward.
  • BICYCLE: Both hands in 'S' fist handshape, alternating circular cycling motion.

2. The Dominance Condition

• The Rule: If the two hands in a sign have different handshapes, the sign is strictly constrained by two articulatory mandates:
  1. Only the dominant hand is permitted to move. The non-dominant (weak or base) hand must remain completely stationary.
  2. The non-dominant hand is phonologically restricted to one of seven unmarked base handshapes (the "BASCO-1-5" inventory).
• The BASCO-1-5 Unmarked Base Handshape Inventory:
  1. B: Open flat hand with fingers closed together (e.g., AGAIN, DRAW, WRITE, DISCUSS).
  2. A: Closed fist with thumb resting alongside index finger (e.g., HELP).
  3. S: Closed fist with thumb wrapped across fingers (e.g., COFFEE, STATUE).
  4. C: Curved open hand (e.g., MARRY, CHOP).
  5. O: Tapered oval hand with all fingers touching thumb (e.g., TEA, STAMP).
  6. 1 / G: Single index finger extended (e.g., WORD, SPECIAL).
  7. 5: Fully open spread hand (e.g., TREE, STAR).
• Classroom Examples Adhering to the Dominance Condition:
  • WORD: Dominant hand in 'G' / '1' shape moves to touch the stationary non-dominant index finger '1' shape.
  • DRAW: Dominant hand in 'I' handshape moves downward across the stationary non-dominant flat 'B' palm.
  • WRITE: Dominant hand in modified 'O' / baby-O shape writes across the stationary non-dominant flat 'B' palm.
  • TEA: Dominant 'F' handshape stirs inside the stationary non-dominant 'O' handshape.
  • DISCUSS: Dominant index finger taps repeatedly on the stationary non-dominant flat 'B' palm.

Significance on the EIPA Written & Performance Tests

Violating Battison's constraints produces severe phonological illegibility. If an educational interpreter allows the non-dominant hand to move while articulating WRITE, or utilizes a marked handshape (such as an 'R', 'K', or 'X') on the base hand in DISCUSS, the interpreter introduces non-native phonological static that obscures lexical comprehension for deaf students.

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5. Phonological Processes in Connected ASL Discourse

Just as spoken English modifies sound combinations in rapid speech (e.g., "handbag" pronounced "hambag" through nasal assimilation), ASL signs undergo systematic phonological processes when chained together in natural, connected discourse:

1. Assimilation

• Definition: A sign adopts a phonological feature (handshape, location, or orientation) from an adjacent preceding or following sign to increase articulatory efficiency.
• Progressive (Perseverative) Assimilation: A feature from an earlier sign carries forward into the subsequent sign.
• Anticipatory (Regressive) Assimilation: The handshape or orientation of an upcoming sign is anticipated and adopted early in the preceding sign.
• Classic Examples:
  • BELIEVE: Historically a compound derived from THINK + MARRY. In isolated citation form, THINK begins with an index finger '1' at the forehead. In the fluent compound BELIEVE, anticipatory assimilation occurs: the hand at the forehead anticipates the cupped 'C' or clasp handshape of MARRY, altering the initial handshape before touching the head.
  • PRO-1 KNOW: In the phrase "I know", the index finger '1' of the personal pronoun PRO-1 frequently assimilates to an open flat 'B' handshape prior to contacting the temple.

2. Metathesis

• Definition: The interchange or reversal of the sequential order of locations in a sign without altering its lexical meaning.
• Phonological Constraint: Only a specific subclass of signs allows metathesis. Signs with inherent chronological or physical directionality (e.g., CHILDREN, BODY, HEAD) cannot undergo metathesis without becoming ungrammatical.
• Permissible Metathesis Examples:
  • DEAF: Can be produced touching the ear then chin, or reversed touching the chin then ear.
  • CONGRESS: Can be produced touching the contralateral chest then ipsilateral chest, or reversed.
  • FLOWER: Can be articulated right-to-left across the nostrils or left-to-right.
  • RESTAURANT: Can touch the right corner of the mouth then left, or reversed.
  • TWINS, NAVY, HEADACHE.

3. Movement Epenthesis

• Definition: The insertion of an epenthetic (transitional) movement segment between two adjacent signs that have non-contiguous articulatory locations.
• Example: In signing FATHER HELP (where FATHER is produced at the forehead and HELP is articulated at waist level), the hand does not teleport; a smooth diagonal downward movement segment is epenthesized, bridging the distinct spatial coordinates.

4. Hold Deletion

• Definition: The elimination of static holds (pauses at the beginning or end of a sign) during fluent signing or compound formation.
• Example: In the compound GOOD-NIGHT (derived from GOOD + NIGHT), the citation terminal hold of GOOD is completely deleted. The hand moves directly from the chin downward to meet the non-dominant arm without stopping, creating a unified, rhythmic lexical unit.

5. Weak Hand Dropping (Weak Hand Deletion)

• Definition: In informal or fast conversational registers, signers frequently drop (omit) the non-dominant hand in two-handed signs that meet the Symmetry Condition.
• Phonological Rules:
  • Permissible in symmetrical signs where both hands perform identical actions: CAT, TIRED, DIE, COW, FINE, WONDERFUL can all be articulated with one hand.
  • Strictly Prohibited in signs governed by the Dominance Condition: The base hand cannot be dropped in signs like WRITE, DRAW, DISCUSS, or WORD because the base hand provides an indispensable spatial locus and phonetic contact surface.

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6. Developmental Phonology and Common Errors in Young Deaf Signers

When assessing student expressive signing or interpreting student utterances (Sign-to-Voice), educational interpreters must distinguish between developmentally appropriate phonological approximations and actual language disorders:

1. Handshape Neutralization (Unmarked Handshape Substitution)

• Developmental Progression: Just as hearing toddlers acquire vowel sounds and simple stop consonants (/p/, /b/, /m/) years before complex liquid consonants (/r/, /l/), deaf children acquire the unmarked BASCO-1-5 handshapes first. Marked handshapes requiring fine motor finger individuation (e.g., 'R', 'X', 'T', '7', '8', 'E') emerge between ages 3 and 6.
• Classroom Errors:
  • A kindergarten student signs RESTROOM by shaking an 'S' or '1' handshape instead of an 'R'.
  • A 3-year-old signs CANDY using an index finger '1' twisting in the cheek instead of a bent 'X'.
  • A young child signs MILK by opening and closing an open '5' handshape instead of squeezing an 'S' fist.

2. Proximalization of Movement

• Definition: Producing articulatory movements at joints closer to the core of the body (proximal joints: shoulders and elbows) rather than distal joints (distal joints: wrists and knuckles).
• Developmental Progression: Fine motor control develops proximodistally (from body center outward). Toddlers naturally execute sign movements using their whole arm.
• Classroom Errors:
  • When signing YES, a 2-year-old pumps their entire forearm up and down from the elbow, rather than flexing the wrist.
  • When signing COLORS, a young child wiggles their whole hand from the wrist rather than fluttering individual fingers.

3. Location Shifts (Lowering to Personal Line of Sight)

• Young deaf children frequently shift signs from the upper face (forehead, temple) downward toward the mid-face, cheek, or chin. This reflects both shorter limb length and the child's natural visual self-monitoring within their immediate forward field of vision.

4. Weak Hand Substitution

• In complex two-handed signs, young children frequently substitute an open '5' or flat 'B' handshape on the non-dominant hand regardless of the citation requirement, or omit the weak hand entirely.

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7. Realistic K-12 Classroom Scenarios

Scenario A: The Kindergarten Phonics Circle

During a kindergarten reading readiness circle, the teacher points to a picture of a rabbit and asks, "What letter does rabbit start with?" Leo, a 5-year-old deaf child, eagerly raises his hand and signs:

RABBIT PRO-3, START WITH S-HANDSHAPE [student produces 'S' handshape shaking side-to-side].

• Linguistic Analysis: Leo knows the word is rabbit, but his motor control has not yet mastered the crossed-finger 'R' handshape. He has substituted the unmarked 'S' handshape—a classic developmental neutralization error.
• Interpreter Voicing: The interpreter does not voice, "It starts with S!" An untrained transliterator might misinterpret the physical error as an academic mistake. Instead, recognizing the phonological substitution, the interpreter accurately voices: "Rabbit starts with the letter R!" Alternatively, the interpreter can voice, "He is signing rabbit, but substituting an S-handshape for R." The interpreter collaborates with the Teacher of the Deaf (TOD) to document Leo's emerging finger individuation.

Scenario B: High School AP Biology Lecture

In an advanced biology class, the instructor lectures on desert ecology: "During prolonged droughts, organisms experience intense dehydration; in contrast, during summer dormancy, metabolism decreases."

• Linguistic Challenge: The interpreter must sign DRY (dehydration) and SUMMER within seconds of each other. Both signs share an identical 1-to-X pulling movement and downward orientation, differing solely in location (DRY across the chin; SUMMER across the forehead).
• Interpreter Execution: The interpreter articulates DRY crisply across the chin, accompanied by the mouth morpheme "dry", and executes SUMMER distinctly across the upper forehead. By maintaining absolute parameter precision, the interpreter prevents the student from confusing environmental aridity with seasonal temperature.

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8. Exam Traps & Strategic Distinctions

• Trap 1: Assuming Iconicity Eliminates Phonological Rules. Test candidates often assume that because a sign looks iconic (e.g., DRINK looks like holding a cup), it is governed by mime rather than phonology. On the EIPA, remember that iconic signs are subject to the exact same phonological parameters, minimal pair contrasts, and Battison constraints as arbitrary signs.
• Trap 2: Misidentifying Dominance Condition Violations. When evaluating video signing on the EIPA, watch the non-dominant base hand. If a sign features different handshapes and the non-dominant hand begins moving independently or assumes a marked handshape (like 'K' or 'F' as a base), it is a direct violation of the Dominance Condition.
• Trap 3: Diagnosing Developmental Proximalization as a Motor Disorder. If a 4-year-old child articulates signs using their elbow and shoulder rather than their wrist, this is normative proximodistal motor development, not a sign of cognitive delay or apraxia.