Confederation and Nation-Building

Why this section matters for the test

Confederation and the building of the nation are among the most heavily tested topics. You should be able to answer instantly: What is Confederation? When? Who was the first Prime Minister? Which four provinces? The guide treats these as essential knowledge for every new citizen.

The War of 1812: the fight for Canada

Believing conquest would be easy, the United States invaded Canada in June 1812. The Americans were mistaken. Canadian volunteers and First Nations joined British soldiers to defend the country.

Key figures and events:

• Major-General Sir Isaac Brock captured Detroit but was killed at Queenston Heights.
• Chief Tecumseh led Shawnee warriors allied with the British.
• Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry and 460 mostly French-Canadian soldiers turned back 4,000 American invaders at Châteauguay in 1813.
• In 1814, British forces from Nova Scotia burned the White House in Washington, D.C., in retaliation for the burning of York (now Toronto).

By 1814, the American invasion had failed. The present-day Canada–U.S. border is partly an outcome of the war, which ensured Canada would remain independent of the United States — the single most important point to remember.

The growth of democratic institutions

Democracy in Canada developed gradually and peacefully. The first representative assembly was elected in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1758. The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the old Province of Quebec into Upper Canada (later Ontario, mainly English-speaking and Protestant) and Lower Canada (later Quebec, mainly French-speaking and Catholic). Reformers later won responsible government — meaning the government must have the support of a majority of elected representatives — a key step toward self-rule before Confederation.

Toward Confederation

From 1864 to 1867, representatives of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada worked with British support to create a new country. These leaders are the Fathers of Confederation. They designed two levels of government: federal and provincial.

The British Parliament passed the British North America Act (BNA Act), and the Dominion of Canada was born on July 1, 1867 — now celebrated as Canada Day (formerly Dominion Day until 1982).

The four original provinces

The old Province of Canada was split into two, joining the two Maritime colonies:

Trap alert: Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland were not among the first four. PEI joined in 1873; Newfoundland and Labrador joined last, in 1949.

The Fathers of Confederation

• Sir John A. Macdonald — Canada's first Prime Minister, born in Scotland in 1815, a Father of Confederation. His portrait is on the $10 bill, and January 11 is Sir John A. Macdonald Day.
• Sir George-Étienne Cartier — the key architect of Confederation from Quebec, who led Quebec into the union.
• Sir Leonard Tilley — the New Brunswick Father who suggested the term "Dominion of Canada," inspired by Psalm 72 ("dominion from sea to sea").

Expansion of the Dominion

The new country grew quickly. Memorize this expansion timeline — dates appear often:

1. 1867 — Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick (the original four).
2. 1870 — Manitoba, Northwest Territories.
3. 1871 — British Columbia.
4. 1873 — Prince Edward Island.
5. 1905 — Alberta and Saskatchewan.
6. 1949 — Newfoundland and Labrador (the last to join).

Louis Riel and the Métis resistances

When Canada took over the vast northwest from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869, the 12,000 Métis of the Red River were not consulted. Louis Riel led an armed uprising, seizing Fort Garry.

Two events you must know:

• Red River Resistance (1869-70): Ottawa sent troops; Riel fled to the United States; Canada created the province of Manitoba. Riel is regarded as the father of Manitoba.
• North-West Rebellion (1885): A second uprising in present-day Saskatchewan led to Riel's trial and execution for high treason — strongly opposed in Quebec.

After the first uprising, Macdonald created the North West Mounted Police (NWMP) in 1873 to keep order in the West — today's Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), or "Mounties."

A railway from sea to sea

British Columbia joined Canada in 1871 only after Ottawa promised a railway to the Pacific. The Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) delivered:

• On November 7, 1885, Donald Smith (Lord Strathcona) drove the last spike.
• The railway was built by European and Chinese labourers; the Chinese later faced the discriminatory Head Tax, for which Canada apologized in 2006.
• The CPR let immigrants — including 170,000 Ukrainians and 115,000 Poles — settle the West before 1914.

Sir Wilfrid Laurier became the first French-Canadian Prime Minister and encouraged this western immigration; his portrait is on the $5 bill.

Common mistakes to avoid

• Confederation is 1867, not 1982 (the Charter) or 1931 (the Statute of Westminster).
• The first four provinces are Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick — not BC or Manitoba.
• Louis Riel was a Métis leader, not a Prime Minister and not a Father of Confederation.