1.2 Boundary, Cadastral, and Land Surveys

Boundary, Cadastral, and Land Surveys

1. Definitions and Objectives

Boundary surveying is the branch of surveying concerned with establishing, re-establishing, or retracing the boundary lines, corners, and property rights of real property parcels. A cadastral survey specifically refers to official surveys performed to create, define, mark, and map boundaries of national, public, or municipal lands for land registration and taxation purposes.

The primary goals of boundary and cadastral surveys include:

• Locating physical corners and boundary lines on the ground based on legal descriptions.
• Resolving ambiguities or discrepancies between recorded deeds and physical evidence.
• Preparing updated property maps, subdivision plats, and legal descriptions for land transfers.

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2. Monuments and Deed Research

Boundaries are defined by legal descriptions recorded in public county records. Before entering the field, survey technicians perform extensive deed research to establish the chain of title and identify adjoiner property boundaries.

Monument Classification

Monuments are physical objects set on or near property corners to mark boundary locations.

1. Natural Monuments: Permanent natural physical features called for in legal descriptions, such as rivers, rock outcrops, streams, or trees. They possess highest legal authority.
2. Artificial (Physical) Monuments: Man-made objects set by surveyors, such as iron pipes, steel rebar with plastic caps, concrete posts, stone pillars, or brass disks set in concrete.
3. Witness Monuments: Reference monuments set along a boundary line at a known bearing and distance from a true corner when the true corner falls in an inaccessible location (such as a riverbed or steep cliff).

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3. Boundary Retracement Principles and Legal Priority of Evidence

When conducting a boundary retracement survey, the land surveyor does not create new boundary lines; rather, the surveyor attempts to follow in the footsteps of the original surveyor who created the parcel boundary.

Legal Hierarchy (Priority) of Evidence

When field measurements conflict with deed descriptions, courts apply a standardized priority of evidence rule to determine the true boundary location:

1. Unwritten Rights / Senior Rights: Rights established by operation of law (such as adverse possession, prescription, or long-standing acquiescence).
2. Natural Monuments: Physical features specified in original deeds (e.g., 'to the center of Bear Creek').
3. Artificial Monuments: Physical markers set by the original surveyor (e.g., 'to a 5/8-inch iron rebar found').
4. Calls for Adjoiners: Record boundaries of adjoining land parcels.
5. Calls for Bearings and Distances: Mathematical course descriptions (courses and distances specified in deed metes and bounds).
6. Area (Stated Acreage): Stated surface area (e.g., 'containing 5.00 acres'). Area carries the lowest legal authority and cannot override physical monuments or clear course calls.

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4. The Public Land Survey System (PLSS)

Established by the Land Ordinance of 1785, the Public Land Survey System (PLSS) is the rectangular surveying framework used to subdivide public domain lands across 30 western and midwestern states.

Principal Meridians and Base Lines

Each PLSS region originates from a unique Initial Point, where two true astronomical axes intersect:

• Principal Meridian: A true north-south line passing through the Initial Point.
• Base Line: A true east-west parallel of latitude passing through the Initial Point.

Townships and Range Lines

• Township Lines: East-west lines surveyed parallel to the Base Line at 6-mile intervals.
• Range Lines: North-south lines surveyed at 6-mile intervals parallel to the Principal Meridian.
• Township Grid: The intersection of township lines and range lines creates Townships, which are square blocks measuring 6 miles by 6 miles (36 square miles).

Section Breakdown and Boustrophedonic Numbering

Each 6x6-mile township is divided into 36 Sections, with each section measuring 1 mile by 1 mile (640 acres).

Sections within a township are numbered in a boustrophedonic ('as the ox plows') snake pattern starting at Section 1 in the extreme northeast corner, moving west to Section 6, dropping south to Section 7, moving east to Section 12, and continuing back and forth until ending at Section 36 in the southeast corner.

+----+----+----+----+----+----+
|  6 |  5 |  4 |  3 |  2 |  1 |
+----+----+----+----+----+----+
|  7 |  8 |  9 | 10 | 11 | 12 |
+----+----+----+----+----+----+
| 18 | 17 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 13 |
+----+----+----+----+----+----+
| 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 |
+----+----+----+----+----+----+
| 30 | 29 | 28 | 27 | 26 | 25 |
+----+----+----+----+----+----+
| 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 |
+----+----+----+----+----+----+

Standard PLSS Area Divisions

• Full Section: 1 mile x 1 mile = 640 acres
• Quarter-Section (1/4): 1/2 mile x 1/2 mile = 160 acres
• Quarter-Quarter Section (1/4 of 1/4): 1/4 mile x 1/4 mile = 40 acres

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5. Metes and Bounds Surveys & Recorded Plats

Outside of PLSS regions (and for specific parcels within PLSS sections), legal property descriptions often use Metes and Bounds or Lot and Block subdivision plats.

• Metes and Bounds: Describes property limits using boundary bearings ('bounds') and linear measurements ('metes'). A metes and bounds description must begin at a clearly defined Point of Beginning (POB) and progress around the perimeter courses sequentially until returning to close at the POB.
• Recorded Plats: When land is subdivided into urban residential lots, a master map called a subdivision plat is recorded in public county land records. Parcels are subsequently described by Lot and Block designations (e.g., 'Lot 14, Block B, Oakridge Estates').

Practical Application Example: PLSS Area Calculation

Calculate the acreage of a parcel described as: 'The North 1/2 of the South East 1/4 of Section 14, T2N, R3E.'

1. Standard Section area = 640 acres.
2. South East 1/4 (SE 1/4) = $640 \div 4 = 160\text{ acres}$.
3. North 1/2 of the SE 1/4 = $160 \div 2 = 80\text{ acres}$.