8.3 Binaural Amplification, Head Shadow & CROS/BiCROS Systems

8.3 Binaural Amplification, Head Shadow & CROS/BiCROS Systems

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Psychoacoustics of Binaural Hearing

Fitting both ears with hearing instruments (bilateral amplification) is the recognized standard of care for bilateral hearing loss. The clinical superiority of bilateral over unilateral fitting rests upon four psychoacoustic phenomena:

                      FOUR PILLARS OF BINAURAL PSYCHOACOUSTICS

    ┌──────────────────────────────────┐      ┌──────────────────────────────────┐
    │ 1. BINAURAL SUMMATION            │      │ 2. BINAURAL SQUELCH              │
    │ • Central neural integration at  │      │ • Brainstem cross-correlation    │
    │   Superior Olivary Complex (SOC).│      │   filters uncorrelated noise.    │
    │ • 3 dB boost at threshold;       │      │   Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)    │
    │   5 to 6 dB boost suprathreshold.│      │   improvement in diffuse noise.  │
    │ • Lowers gain demand & feedback. │      └──────────────────────────────────┘
    └──────────────────────────────────┘
    ┌──────────────────────────────────┐      ┌──────────────────────────────────┐
    │ 3. SOUND LOCALIZATION            │      │ 4. PREVENTING DEPRIVATION        │
    │ • Duplex Theory of localization: │      │ • Continuous bilateral sensory   │
    │   - ITD: < 1500 Hz (Phase/Time)  │      │   input prevents cortical disuse │
    │   - ILD: > 1500 Hz (Head Shadow) │      │   atrophy (Silman et al., 1984). │
    │ • Restores 360-degree spatial    │      │ • Protects suprathreshold word   │
    │   auditory orientation.          │      │   recognition scores over time.  │
    └──────────────────────────────────┘      └──────────────────────────────────┘

1. Binaural Summation

Binaural summation refers to the central integration of acoustic energy from both ears, mediated within the brainstem at the level of the superior olivary complex (SOC):

• Threshold Level: Absolute auditory thresholds improve by approximately 3 dB when listening with two ears versus one ear.
• Suprathreshold Level: At conversational and loud listening levels (50 to 80 dB HL), binaural loudness summation yields an effective perceived loudness boost of 5 to 6 dB (and up to 8 to 10 dB at high intensities).
• Clinical Benefits for Hearing Aid Dispensing:
  1. Reduced Gain Requirement: Each hearing aid can be programmed with 3 to 6 dB less gain than would be required in a unilateral fitting.
  2. Reduced Feedback Susceptibility: Lower gain dramatically reduces the risk of acoustic feedback oscillation.
  3. Headroom and Saturation: Reduced output preserves amplifier headroom, lowering peak-clipping and harmonic distortion.
  4. Extended Battery Life: Lower power output conserves current drain.

2. The Head Shadow Effect

The head shadow effect is a physical acoustic phenomenon governed by the relationship between the physical diameter of the human head and the wavelength of sound:

λ = c / f

Where c is the speed of sound in air (~343 m/s) and f is frequency. The average adult head measures approximately 15 to 18 cm (0.15 to 0.18 m) in width.

• Low Frequencies (< 1500 Hz): At 500 Hz, the acoustic wavelength is approximately 68 cm (0.68 m)—substantially larger than the head. The sound wave easily bends, or diffracts, around the contours of the skull with negligible acoustic attenuation (less than 1 to 2 dB).
• High Frequencies (> 1500 Hz): At 3000 Hz, the wavelength shrinks to 11 cm (0.11 m), and at 4000 Hz to 8.5 cm—substantially smaller than the head. The head acts as an impenetrable physical barrier, reflecting and absorbing acoustic energy.
• The Acoustic Shadow: When high-frequency speech sounds arrive from the side of the unaided or impaired ear, the head casts an acoustic shadow over the contralateral ear. High-frequency sounds suffer 6 to 12 dB of physical attenuation (and up to 15 to 20 dB in the 4000 to 6000 Hz region).

                          THE HEAD SHADOW EFFECT

           Acoustic Wavefront                       Human Head
           High-Frequency Speech                   Barrier (~18 cm)
           (/s/, /f/, /th/, /k/)

           ────────────────────►    Ear 1 (Near)          Ear 2 (Far)
           ────────────────────►   ┌────────────┐        ┌───────────┐
           ────────────────────►   │ Full Sound │        │  SHADOW   │ (Attenuated
           ────────────────────►   │  Pressure  │        │   ZONE    │  by 6-12 dB;
           ────────────────────►   │ (0 dB Loss)│        │           │  up to 20 dB
           ────────────────────►   └─────┬──────┘        └─────┬─────┘  at 4-6 kHz)
                                         │                     │
                                         └────── Skull ────────┘
                                           Blocks wavelengths
                                           shorter than 18 cm
                                           (Frequencies > 1.5 kHz)

Clinical Consequence:

High-frequency unvoiced consonants (/s/, /t/, /f/, /θ/, /k/, /ʃ/) carry over 60% of speech intelligibility despite accounting for only a fraction of speech acoustic power. A listener with single-sided deafness or a unilateral fitting sitting at a dinner table will suffer severe phonemic loss whenever a speaker talks into their unaided ear.

3. Binaural Squelch

Binaural squelch is a central nervous system processing advantage. When speech and background noise originate from different spatial locations in a room, they arrive at the two cochleae with slight differences in time, phase, and intensity.

• The central auditory nervous system (brainstem and cortex) cross-correlates these two disparate neural streams. By comparing phase disparities, the CANS effectively "squelches" or suppresses the uncorrelated diffuse background noise while enhancing the correlated speech signal.
• Binaural squelch yields an effective Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) improvement of 2 to 3 dB.
• Significance: In human psychoacoustics, each 1 dB improvement in SNR translates to approximately a 7% to 10% increase in sentence intelligibility in noise. Therefore, binaural squelch provides a 15% to 30% intelligibility boost in challenging reverberant environments (e.g., restaurants, classrooms, meetings).

4. Horizontal Sound Localization (The Duplex Theory)

In 1907, Lord Rayleigh established the Duplex Theory of Sound Localization, identifying the dual physical mechanisms utilized by the brainstem to localize acoustic sources along the horizontal azimuth (0° to 360°):

┌─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                     THE DUPLEX THEORY OF LOCALIZATION                       │
├─────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Mechanism           │ Physical and Neurophysiological Characteristics       │
├─────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Interaural Time     │ • Operates on LOW FREQUENCIES (< 1500 Hz).            │
│ Difference (ITD)    │ • Acoustic wavelengths are longer than the head.      │
│                     │ • Sound arrives at the near ear microseconds before   │
│                     │   reaching the far ear (maximum delay ~650 to 700 μs).│
│                     │ • Processed in the Medial Superior Olive (MSO).       │
├─────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┤
│ Interaural Level    │ • Operates on HIGH FREQUENCIES (> 1500 Hz).           │
│ Difference (ILD)    │ • Acoustic wavelengths are shorter than the head.     │
│                     │ • Head shadow effect creates an intensity disparity   │
│                     │   of 6 to 20 dB between near and far ears.            │
│                     │ • Processed in the Lateral Superior Olive (LSO).      │
└─────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

Patients fitted unilaterally—or those with single-sided deafness—are completely deprived of both ITD and ILD cues. They cannot determine whether a honking car, calling family member, or workplace alarm originates from the left, right, or behind, creating severe spatial disorientation and personal safety hazards.

5. Binaural Auditory Deprivation

In 1984, Silman, Gelfand, and Silverman published seminal longitudinal research examining patients with bilateral symmetrical sensorineural hearing loss who had been fitted with only a single hearing aid over a period of 4 to 5 years:

• The Finding: While the aided ear maintained or slightly improved its Word Recognition Score (WRS), the unaided ear experienced a statistically significant, progressive decline in word recognition ability (frequently declining by 15% to 30% over 5 years).
• The Mechanism: Pure-tone air- and bone-conduction thresholds in the unaided ear remained stable, proving that the deterioration was not cochlear. Rather, sensory deprivation caused central auditory disuse atrophy—the auditory processing centers in the brainstem and temporal cortex reorganizing and losing the ability to resolve fine phonemic timing contrasts.
• Clinical Mandate: Fitting bilaterally at the initial onset of aidable bilateral hearing loss is essential to preserve neural processing integrity in both cerebral hemispheres.

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Single-Sided Deafness (SSD) & Unaidable Unilateral Loss

Not all patients are candidates for bilateral amplification. A distinct clinical population presents with Single-Sided Deafness (SSD) or an unaidable ear.

Audiometric Criteria for an "Unaidable" Ear:

1. Profound sensorineural hearing loss (thresholds > 90 dB HL across 500 to 4000 Hz; "dead ear").
2. Extremely poor suprathreshold speech recognition (WRS < 20-30%) despite adequate sensation level.
3. Severe phonemic distortion or hyper-recruitment, where amplification causes pain or unintelligible noise.
4. Intractable medical conditions precluding ear canal occlusion (e.g., chronic draining mastoid cavity).

When one ear is unaidable, conventional amplification on that ear is contraindicated; providing 70 dB of gain into a dead ear merely generates feedback, distortion, and patient distress. Instead, the specialist must turn to specialized routing systems: CROS and BiCROS.

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Contralateral Routing of Signals (CROS)

Clinical Candidacy Criteria

• Poorer Ear: Unaidable profound sensorineural hearing loss (or medically unaidable ear).
• Better Ear: Completely normal hearing (pure-tone thresholds ≤ 20-25 dB HL across all frequencies from 250 Hz to 8000 Hz; normal speech recognition).

                              CROS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

          UNAIDABLE EAR                                    NORMAL BETTER EAR
       (Profound SNHL / WRS 0%)                         (Normal Hearing Thresholds)
    ┌───────────────────────────┐                     ┌───────────────────────────┐
    │      CROS TRANSMITTER     │                     │       CROS RECEIVER       │
    │                           │                     │                           │
    │  • Microphone picks up    │  Digital Wireless   │  • Receives audio from    │
    │    sound from impaired    │  RF Transmission    │    transmitter.           │
    │    side.                  ├────────────────────►│  • Delivers sound to ear  │
    │  • Digitizes & transmits  │  (Near-zero latency)│    with ZERO NET GAIN.    │
    │    audio across head.     │                     │  • MUST USE OPEN DOME     │
    │  • No receiver / speaker. │                     │    to preserve natural    │
    │                           │                     │    normal ear hearing.    │
    └───────────────────────────┘                     └───────────────────────────┘

System Engineering and Mechanics

1. Transmitter Unit (Worn on the Unaidable Ear):
   • Consists of a microphone, analog-to-digital converter, and a wireless digital radio-frequency (RF) transmitter (typically 2.4 GHz or proprietary magnetic induction).
   • Features no internal amplifier or receiver (speaker). It exists solely to capture acoustic signals arriving from the patient's unaidable side.
2. Receiver Unit (Worn on the Normal Ear):
   • Consists of an RF receiver, digital processor, and acoustic receiver (speaker).
   • Crucial Acoustic Coupling Rule: The receiver must be coupled to the normal ear using an open dome or completely non-occluding earpiece.
   • Why Open Coupling is Mandatory: If the normal ear canal is occluded, the patient will suffer from the occlusion effect (their own voice sounding boomy) and their normal peripheral hearing will be attenuated. The open dome allows natural direct sound into the canal undisturbed.
3. Zero Net Gain (Unity Gain):
   • The CROS system provides 0 dB of net acoustic gain.
   • The amplifier output is calibrated precisely to overcome the insertion loss of the device and deliver the acoustic signal from the unaidable side at the exact sound pressure level it would have possessed had it arrived directly at the normal ear.
   • Primary Clinical Benefit: Completely eliminates the Head Shadow Effect.

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Bilateral Contralateral Routing of Signals (BiCROS)

Clinical Candidacy Criteria

• Poorer Ear: Unaidable profound sensorineural hearing loss (or medically unaidable ear).
• Better Ear: Aidable hearing loss (mild to moderately-severe sensorineural, conductive, or mixed hearing loss that would independently benefit from amplification).

                             BiCROS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

          UNAIDABLE EAR                                     BETTER AIDABLE EAR
       (Profound SNHL / WRS 0%)                         (Impaired: e.g., 45-60 dB HL)
    ┌───────────────────────────┐                     ┌───────────────────────────┐
    │     BiCROS TRANSMITTER    │                     │     BiCROS TRANSCEIVER    │
    │                           │                     │       (HEARING AID)       │
    │  • Microphone picks up    │  Digital Wireless   │  • Microphone 2 picks up  │
    │    sound on dead side.    │  RF Transmission    │    sound on better side.  │
    │  • Transmits audio across ├────────────────────►│  • MIXER combines audio   │
    │    skull.                 │                     │    from both microphones. │
    │  • No receiver on this    │                     │  • AMPLIFIES combined     │
    │    side.                  │                     │    signal to prescriptive │
    │                           │                     │    targets for better ear.│
    │                           │                     │  • Acoustic coupling based│
    │                           │                     │    on better ear thresholds│
    └───────────────────────────┘                     └───────────────────────────┘

System Engineering and Mechanics

1. Transmitter Unit (Worn on the Unaidable Ear):
   • Identical in form to the CROS transmitter. Contains a microphone capturing sound from the unaidable side and transmitting it wirelessly across the skull.
2. Transceiver / Hearing Aid Unit (Worn on the Better Ear):
   • Unlike the CROS receiver, the BiCROS unit is a fully functioning, high-performance hearing aid.
   • Contains its own active microphone sampling sound arriving from the better side.
   • Contains an internal digital mixer that combines the audio stream from the transmitter (poor ear) with the audio stream from its own microphone (better ear).
   • The combined acoustic signal is processed and amplified through the hearing aid receiver according to prescriptive targets (e.g., NAL-NL2) formulated specifically for the better ear's hearing loss.
3. Acoustic Coupling for BiCROS:
   • Acoustic coupling is selected based entirely on the low-frequency hearing thresholds of the better ear:
     • If low frequencies (250 to 500 Hz) are normal (< 25 dB HL): An open dome is used to avoid occlusion.
     • If low frequencies exhibit mild-to-moderate loss (30 to 50 dB HL): A vented dome or vented custom earmold is required to deliver adequate low-frequency gain without feedback.

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Clinical Comparison: Conventional Bilateral vs. CROS vs. BiCROS

                           CLINICAL DECISION TREE

                       ┌──────────────────────────────┐
                       │   DIAGNOSTIC AUDIOGRAM OF    │
                       │     PATIENT'S TWO EARS       │
                       └──────────────┬───────────────┘
                                      │
               ┌──────────────────────┴──────────────────────┐
               ▼                                             ▼
   ┌───────────────────────┐                     ┌───────────────────────┐
   │  BOTH EARS AIDABLE    │                     │    ONE EAR UNAIDABLE  │
   │  (WRS > 40-50%;       │                     │    (Dead Ear / WRS <20%│
   │   Thresholds < 90 dB) │                     │     or Unfit for Aid)  │
   └───────────┬───────────┘                     └───────────┬───────────┘
               │                                             │
               ▼                                             ▼
   ┌───────────────────────┐                     ┌───────────────────────┐
   │ FIT BILATERAL AIDS    │                     │ Evaluate Hearing in   │
   │ (Preserve Summation,  │                     │ Contralateral Better  │
   │  Localization, Squelch│                     │          Ear          │
   │  and Prevent Disuse)  │                     └───────────┬───────────┘
   └───────────────────────┘                                 │
                                     ┌───────────────────────┴───────────────────────┐
                                     ▼                                               ▼
                         ┌───────────────────────┐                       ┌───────────────────────┐
                         │   BETTER EAR NORMAL   │                       │  BETTER EAR IMPAIRED  │
                         │   (PTA ≤ 20-25 dB HL) │                       │  (Aidable Loss Found) │
                         ├───────────────────────┤                       ├───────────────────────┤
                         │      FIT: CROS        │                       │     FIT: BiCROS       │
                         │ • Transmitter on dead │                       │ • Transmitter on dead │
                         │   ear; receiver on    │                       │   ear; full hearing   │
                         │   normal ear.         │                       │   aid on better ear.  │
                         │ • Open dome.          │                       │ • Amplifies combined  │
                         │ • Zero net gain.      │                       │   signal to target.   │
                         └───────────────────────┘                       └───────────────────────┘

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Realistic Patient Counseling & Expectations

Counseling patients fitted with CROS and BiCROS systems requires precision and transparency regarding psychoacoustic limitations:

What CROS/BiCROS Systems CAN Do:

1. Eliminate the Head Shadow Effect: The patient no longer needs to turn their head or reposition themselves at meetings to hear people speaking into their impaired side.
2. Restore 360-Degree Environmental Awareness: Significant safety improvement when walking, driving, or working, as vehicles and speech from the blind side are detected.
3. Improve Speech Understanding in Quiet: Excellent intelligibility when conversational partners speak on the impaired side in low-noise environments.

What CROS/BiCROS Systems CANNOT Do:

1. They DO NOT Restore True Sound Localization:
   • Because all acoustic signals (from both the left and right sides) are routed into a single functioning cochlea, the brainstem receives only monaural neural timing and intensity cues.
   • A patient wearing a CROS system hearing a voice from their impaired side perceives the sound inside the normal ear. While they learn to infer location via visual cues and cognitive context, physiological horizontal localization cannot be restored.
2. They DO NOT Provide Binaural Squelch:
   • Binaural squelch requires phase disparity processing between two functional cochleae. With a single cochlea receiving combined inputs, the central nervous system cannot separate noise from speech.
3. The "Noisy Room" Challenge:
   • If a CROS user is placed in a noisy cocktail party where loud background chatter is located on their unaidable side and their conversation partner is on their normal side, the transmitter will pick up the background noise and stream it directly into their normal ear, potentially worsening the signal-to-noise ratio.
   • Counseling Strategy: Instruct CROS/BiCROS patients on strategic physical positioning—positioning their normal ear toward the speaker of interest and keeping their unaidable (transmitter) ear away from dominant noise sources.