9.1 Attributive Clauses: Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs

9.1 Attributive Clauses: Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs

Executive Overview: In the Gaokao English examination, Attributive Clauses (定语从句) represent one of the most heavily tested syntactic structures across Part III (Language Knowledge and Use: Grammar Fill-in and Cloze) and Part IV (Writing: Practical and Continuation Writing). An attributive clause functions as a post-nominal modifier embedded within a complex sentence. It qualifies, restricts, or describes an antecedent (先行词)—typically a noun, pronoun, or an entire proposition. Mastery of attributive clauses requires candidates to analyze the syntactic architecture of the subordinate clause, identify whether an argument or an adverbial is missing, and apply rigorous selection constraints for relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) and relative adverbs (where, when, why).

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1. Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Attributive Clauses

Attributive clauses are partitioned into two broad categories based on their semantic scope and syntactic independence:

Restrictive Relative Clauses (限制性定语从句)

• Syntactic Characteristic: Closely bound to the antecedent without an intervening comma.
• Semantic Role: Essential to the identification of the antecedent. Removing the clause fundamentally destroys or alters the core proposition of the main sentence.
• Connective Scope: Can employ that, which, who, whom, whose, where, when, or why. Relative pronouns functioning as direct objects inside the clause can be freely omitted in informal and standard registers.
• Example: The scientist who pioneered the hybrid rice project was honored internationally. (Without the clause, The scientist was honored internationally lacks definitive reference).

Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses (非限制性定语从句)

• Syntactic Characteristic: Separated from the independent clause by one or two commas.
• Semantic Role: Adds supplementary, parenthetical, or descriptive information. Removing the clause leaves the core proposition intact.
• Connective Constraints:
  1. 'That' is strictly prohibited: Non-restrictive clauses modifying things must use which; modifying persons must use who or whom.
  2. No omission: Relative pronouns functioning as objects cannot be omitted.
  3. Propositional modification: A non-restrictive clause can modify an entire preceding clause or verb phrase rather than a single nominal antecedent.
• Example: Tu Youyou was awarded the Nobel Prize, which brought immense pride to the Chinese scientific community. (The relative pronoun which refers back to the entire proposition of receiving the Nobel Prize).

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2. Relative Pronoun Selection and Syntactic Roles

Relative pronouns perform a dual grammatical function: they act as a connective binding the subordinate clause to the antecedent, while simultaneously occupying an internal syntactic position (subject, object, predicative, or possessive determiner) inside the relative clause.

The Mechanics of Possessive 'Whose'

In Gaokao Grammar Fill-in, whose frequently tests nominal possession. When the antecedent is an inanimate object, whose + noun is structurally equivalent to two alternative patterns: $\text{whose} + \text{noun} \iff \text{the} + \text{noun} + \text{of which} \iff \text{of which} + \text{the} + \text{noun}$

• The research team built a telescope whose lens was fabricated domestically.
• The research team built a telescope the lens of which was fabricated domestically.
• The research team built a telescope of which the lens was fabricated domestically.

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3. Mandatory Use of 'That' vs. Mandatory Use of 'Which'

Gaokao test-designers deliberately construct testing contexts where only one specific relative pronoun is grammatically acceptable.

Mandatory Use of 'That' in Restrictive Clauses

Candidates must choose that (and avoid which) under the following six syntactic conditions:

1. Superlative Modification: When the antecedent is modified by an adjective in the superlative degree.
   • This is the most compelling argument that has been presented on climate resilience.
2. Ordinal Modification: When the antecedent is preceded by an ordinal number (first, second, last, next).
   • The first national park that was established in China set a conservation benchmark.
3. Indefinite Pronouns: When the antecedent itself is an indefinite pronoun, such as all, everything, nothing, anything, little, much, few, none.
   • All that glitters is not gold. / There is nothing that can impede our technological innovation.
4. Limiting Adjectives: When the antecedent is modified by the only, the very, the right, the same.
   • Professor Wang is the only educator that can elucidate this complex theorem so lucidly.
5. Mixed Antecedents (Persons + Things): When the antecedent coordinates both human and non-human entities.
   • The documentary depicts the heroic firefighters and the historical architecture that were threatened by the wildfire.
6. Interrogative Clausal Heads: When the main sentence initiates with interrogative Who or Which to prevent euphonious repetition.
   • Who is the researcher that published the ground-breaking paper on quantum computing? (Avoids Who is the researcher who...).

Mandatory Use of 'Which'

Conversely, which is mandatory in two absolute structural contexts:

1. In Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses: Where the antecedent is a thing or a complete clausal proposition.
   • The school initiated an eco-friendly recycling program, which substantially reduced plastic waste.
2. Immediately Governed by a Preposition: When the relative pronoun directly follows a preposition referring to a thing.
   • The high-speed rail corridor through which the train traveled spans three ecological zones. (Never through that).

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4. Relative Adverbs (where, when, why) vs. Preposition + which

A perennial discriminator on the Gaokao is determining whether a blank requires a relative pronoun or a relative adverb. The decision does not depend solely on the antecedent noun; it depends on the internal syntactic completeness of the relative clause.

The Syntactic Diagnostic Test

• Step 1: Isolate the subordinate clause and identify its predicate verb.
• Step 2: Determine if the predicate verb is transitive (requiring a direct object) or intransitive (complete without an object).
• Step 3: If the clause lacks a Subject or Direct Object, the gap must be filled by a relative pronoun (which / that).
• Step 4: If the clause is structurally complete (Subject + Verb + Object/Complement) and only lacks a circumstantial adverbial, the gap must be filled by a relative adverb (where, when, why) or preposition + which.

Comparative Diagnostic Example:
1. This is the biological laboratory which we visited yesterday. 
   (Visited is transitive; requires an object -> 'which/that' functions as the object).
2. This is the biological laboratory where we conducted experiments yesterday.
   (Conducted experiments is syntactically complete; requires a locative adverbial -> 'where' or 'in which').

Abstract Spatial Antecedents Requiring 'Where'

Modern Gaokao papers frequently extend where beyond literal physical geographic locations to abstract nouns denoting circumstances, conditions, systems, or stages:

• Key Abstract Antecedents: case, situation, stage, point, atmosphere, condition, position, activity, environment, society.
• We have reached a critical stage where decisive collective action on biodiversity is essential. (= at which)
• He found himself in an awkward situation where he had to confess his error. (= in which)
• The novel portrays an academic atmosphere where creative thinking is vigorously nurtured. (= in which)

Antecedents of 'Way' and 'Time'

• The Noun 'Way' (Manner): When the way is the antecedent expressing manner, the relative connector can be that, in which, or omitted entirely. Standard English and Gaokao rubrics strictly reject how as a relative word.
  • I admire the way (that / in which) she articulates complex linguistic theories. (Never the way how).
• The Noun 'Time':
  • I will never forget the time when we explored the Dunhuang grottoes. (Complete clause: we explored... -> relative adverb when).
  • I treasure every minute that / which we spent together in high school. (Incomplete clause: spent requires an object -> relative pronoun that / which).

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5. Preposition + Relative Pronoun Collocation Architecture

In both Reading Comprehension syntactic parsing and Grammar Fill-in, sentences featuring preposition + which/whom require structural precision. The choice of preposition is governed by three linguistic drivers:

Partitive and Quantifier Constructions

Gaokao items frequently test expressions denoting quantity, proportion, or selection preceding of which (for things) or of whom (for people):

• Structure: [Quantifier / Numeral / Fraction / Superlative] + of + which / whom
• The university admitted two hundred doctoral candidates, most of whom had published peer-reviewed research.
• The expedition surveyed six remote islands, two of which were uninhabited by humans.
• China possesses numerous historical landmarks, the most magnificent of which is the Great Wall.

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6. Relative Pronoun 'As' vs. 'Which' in Non-Restrictive Clauses

Both as and which can introduce non-restrictive relative clauses referring to an entire preceding proposition. However, their structural distribution and semantic connotations diverge sharply:

Key Differences Between 'As' and 'Which'

1. Positional Flexibility:
   • As can appear in sentence-initial, medial, or final position.
   • Which can only appear after the main clause it modifies (medial or final position; it can never introduce a sentence).
2. Semantic Concurrence vs. Factual Consequence:
   • As conveys "just as, as might be expected", indicating that the main clause proposition aligns with conventional knowledge, common observation, or prediction.
   • Which conveys "and this fact/circumstance", functioning as a factual connector that often presents surprising, contrary, or causal consequences.
3. Fixed Formulaic Expressions with 'As':
   • As is well known to all / As is commonly known (众所周知)
   • As has been reported in the media (正如媒体报道的那样)
   • As is often the case (这是常有的事)
   • As can be seen from the graph (正如图表所示)
   • As the saying goes (正如俗话所说)

Comparative Analysis:
1. As is expected, our school team clinched the national championship. 
   (Sentence-initial; expresses alignment with expectation -> 'As' is mandatory).
2. Our school team clinched the national championship, which caught our rivals completely off guard.
   (Expresses an unexpected result/consequence; cannot use 'as' -> 'Which' is mandatory).

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7. Distant Antecedents: Resolving Intervening Syntactic Noise

In Gaokao Reading passages and advanced Cloze narratives, the antecedent is frequently separated from its relative clause by intervening modifiers (prepositional phrases, participial phrases, parentheticals, or predicate verbs). Candidates who automatically link the relative pronoun to the immediate preceding word fall into deliberate distractor traps.

Analytical Strategy for Distant Antecedents

• Diagnostic Isolation: Bracket and mentally delete intervening prepositional phrases, appositives, or parenthetical remarks.
• Trace Semantic Agreement: Match the number (singular/plural) and semantic category (person vs. thing) of the antecedent with the verb inside the relative clause.

Syntactic Dissection:
Sentence: The committee approved a subsidy [for the rural clinics] that was desperately needed.
Analysis: The verb inside the relative clause is singular ('was'). If the antecedent were the immediately 
preceding plural noun 'rural clinics', the verb would have been 'were'. Therefore, the true antecedent is 
the distant singular noun 'subsidy'.