2.2 Modifiers, Parallelism, and Idiomatic Usage

2.2 Modifiers, Parallelism, and Idiomatic Usage

Precision in writing requires seamless coordination of modifier placement, balanced grammatical structures, and adherence to standard idiomatic phrasing. The CLEP exam frequently tests these concepts to evaluate your control of syntax and semantic clarity.

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1. Modifier Placement: Misplaced, Dangling, and Squinting Modifiers

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes or provides detail about another element in the sentence. For a sentence to be clear, the modifier must be placed as close as possible to the exact noun or verb it modifies.

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is separated from the word it describes, resulting in absurd or unintentional meanings.

• Incorrect: The professor delivered a lecture on environmental policy in the auditorium that was exhausting.
• Analysis: Placement suggests the auditorium was exhausting rather than the lecture.
• Correct: In the auditorium, the professor delivered a lecture on environmental policy that was exhausting.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier occurs when an introductory modifying phrase (usually a participial or prepositional phrase) lacks a logical subject in the main clause. Rule: The noun performing the action in an introductory modifier must directly follow the comma.

• Incorrect: Walking through the historical museum, ancient artifacts fascinated the students.
• Analysis: Artifacts cannot walk through a museum.
• Correct: Walking through the historical museum, the students were fascinated by ancient artifacts.
• Correct Alternative: As the students walked through the historical museum, ancient artifacts fascinated them.

Squinting Modifiers

A squinting modifier is positioned between two words or phrases, making it ambiguous which one it modifies.

• Ambiguous: Professors who teach online frequently complain about technical glitches.
• Meaning 1: Professors who frequently teach online complain...
• Meaning 2: Professors who teach online complain frequently...

Limiting Modifiers (Only, Just, Nearly, Almost, Merely)

Limiting modifiers alter sentence meaning significantly depending on where they are placed. Always place them immediately before the specific word they limit.

• Only John ate apples at noon. (John alone ate apples; no one else did).
• John only ate apples at noon. (John did nothing else with the apples except eat them; or ate nothing else).
• John ate only apples at noon. (John ate apples and no other food).
• John ate apples only at noon. (John ate apples at no other time).

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2. Parallel Structure (Parallelism)

Parallelism requires that matching ideas in a sentence share matching grammatical structures. When elements are paired in lists, coordinate series, or comparisons, they must all be nouns, all infinitives, all gerunds, or all clauses.

Parallelism in Lists and Series

• Non-Parallel: The survey revealed that consumers value honesty, acting promptly, and to have affordable rates.
• Parallel (All Nouns): The survey revealed that consumers value honesty, promptness, and affordability.
• Parallel (All Gerunds): The survey revealed that consumers value being honest, acting promptly, and offering affordable rates.

Parallelism with Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions work in pairs: not only... but also, either... or, neither... nor, both... and, whether... or. The grammatical structure following the first conjunction must mirror the structure following the second.

Parallelism in Comparisons (Than, As, Rather Than)

When comparing items, ensure that you compare equivalent concepts. Do not compare a thing to a quality, or a person to a characteristic.

• Incorrect: The salary of an experienced software engineer is higher than a mechanical technician.
• Analysis: Compares "salary" to a person ("a mechanical technician").
• Correct: The salary of an experienced software engineer is higher than that of a mechanical technician.
• Correct: An experienced software engineer's salary is higher than a mechanical technician's.

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3. Standard Prepositions and Idiomatic Expressions

Idioms are established word combinations in Standard Written English. The CLEP tests prepositions that must follow specific verbs, adjectives, or nouns.

Fixed Prepositional Collocations

Academic English requires exact preposition pairings. Memorize these frequent CLEP collocations:

• Absorbed in (not with) — She was absorbed in her research.
• Accused of (not with) — He was accused of plagiarism.
• Adhere to (not with) — Students must adhere to academic standards.
• Attribute to (not with) — The success was attributed to hard work.
• Capable of (not to) — She is capable of achieving top honors.
• Comply with (not to) — The firm complied with federal rules.
• Different from (not than) — This model is different from the previous one.
• Infer from (not to) — We infer conclusions from empirical data.
• Prohibit from (not to) — Regulations prohibit staff from accepting gifts.
• Responsible for (not on) — The director is responsible for logistics.

Redundant and Non-Standard Prepositional Phrases

Eliminate unnecessary prepositions commonly heard in casual speech:

• Non-Standard: He jumped off of the platform.
• Standard: He jumped off the platform.
• Non-Standard: Where is the conference room at?
• Standard: Where is the conference room?
• Non-Standard: The reason for the delay is because the flight was canceled.
• Standard: The reason for the delay is that the flight was canceled.

Specific Prepositional Distinctions

• Between vs. Among: Use between when referring to two distinct items or individuals. Use among when referring to three or more items or members of a group.
  • Example: Negotiations between the two nations collapsed.
  • Example: Consensus among the faculty members was reached.
• Beside vs. Besides: Beside means next to at the side of. Besides means in addition to or moreover.
  • Example: Sit beside me during the presentation.
  • Example: Besides taking physics, she enrolled in calculus.

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Summary Table: Modifier, Parallelism & Idiom Errors

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CLEP Exam Traps & Strategy Checklist

1. Identify Introductory Phrases: Whenever a sentence begins with a modifying phrase followed by a comma, stop and ask: Who or what is performing this action? Verify that this subject directly follows the comma.
2. Check Correlative Pairs: Circle not only... but also, either... or, neither... nor. Check the exact grammatical structure immediately following each half of the pair.
3. Scan for Different Than: Change different than to different from on sight.
4. Verify Comparative Sentences: When you see than or as, check whether possessive forms (that of, those of, or 's) are required to maintain parallel comparison.