Skin
10%of exam
Muscular System
10%of exam
Cells & Tissues
10%of exam
Skeletal System
10%of exam
Endocrine System
10%of exam
Cardiovascular System
10%of exam
Heart StructureMajor VesselsBlood ComponentsCardiovascular Pathology
Lymphatic System
10%of exam
Neurological System
10%of exam
Digestive System
6%of exam
Respiratory System
6%of exam
Reproductive System
4%of exam
Male ReproductiveFemale ReproductiveMenstrual CycleReproductive Pathology
Urinary System
4%of exam
Urinary OrgansUrine FormationUrine CompositionUrinary Pathology
Quick Facts
- Exam
- ITEC A&P (iUBT435)
- Format
- 50 MCQ, 55 minutes
- Pass
- 50% (25 of 50)
- Merit
- 75-89%
- Distinction
- 90-100%
- Topics
- 12 body systems
- GLH
- 100 hours (370 TQT)
- Sponsor
- None required
Epidermis Layer Order
Corneum -> Lucidum -> Granulosum -> Spinosum -> Basale
Corneum: outer dead layerLucidum: clear, palms/solesGranulosum: granular layerBasale: deepest, mitosis
Skin Structure
- Stratum corneum
- Outer, dead keratinised layer
- Stratum germinativum
- Basal layer, mitosis begins
- Dermal papilla
- Anchors epidermis to dermis
- Collagen
- Gives skin tensile strength
- Sebaceous gland
- Secretes oily sebum
- Eccrine gland
- Watery sweat, cools body
- Apocrine gland
- Puberty sweat, linked odour
- Vitamin D formation
- UV converts 7-dehydrocholesterol
Skin Disorders & Cancers
- Eczema
- Congenital inflammatory skin condition
- Psoriasis
- Congenital, scaly skin patches
- Acne vulgaris
- Sebaceous disorder, blocked follicles
- Vitiligo
- Acquired pigment loss
- Basal cell carcinoma
- Most common, least aggressive
- Squamous cell carcinoma
- Moderate risk of spreading
- Malignant melanoma
- Most dangerous, highest spread risk
Tendon vs Ligament
Tendon
- Connects muscle to bone
- Enables movement
Ligament
- Connects bone to bone
- Stabilises the joint
Muscle link vs joint link
Muscle Fundamentals
- Voluntary muscle
- Skeletal, conscious control
- Involuntary muscle
- Smooth, organ walls
- Cardiac muscle
- Heart only, involuntary
- Origin
- Fixed attachment point
- Insertion
- Moving attachment point
- Tendon
- Attaches muscle to bone
- Ligament
- Attaches bone to bone
- Fascia
- Sheet wrapping each muscle
Muscle Actions & Pathology
- Flexion
- Decreases the joint angle
- Abduction
- Moves away from midline
- Rotation
- Turns around an axis
- Dorsiflexion
- Lifts the foot upward
- Cramp
- Sudden, painful contraction
- Atrophy
- Muscle wasting from disuse
- Fibromyalgia
- Widespread chronic muscle pain
- Sprain
- Ligament injury
Mitosis Order
Prophase -> Metaphase -> Anaphase -> Telophase
Prophase: chromosomes condenseMetaphase: align at centreAnaphase: chromatids separateTelophase: two nuclei form
Osmosis vs Diffusion
Osmosis
- Water molecules only
- Crosses semi-permeable membrane
Diffusion
- Any dissolved particle
- High to low concentration
Water vs any particle
Tissue Type Picker
- Cover or line a surface→Epithelial tissue(Protection)
- Bind and support organs→Connective tissue(Structural support)
- Need fast electrical signal→Nervous tissue(Conduction)
- Need voluntary contraction→Muscular tissue(Movement)
- Need fat storage→Adipose tissue(Insulation)
- Need flexible support→Cartilage(Joints, ears, nose)
Cell Structure & Division
- Nucleus
- Genetic control centre
- Mitochondria
- Produces ATP energy
- Ribosome
- Synthesises proteins
- Golgi apparatus
- Packages cell proteins
- Lysosome
- Digests cell waste
- Endoplasmic reticulum
- Transports cell materials
- Centromere
- Joins sister chromatids
- Chromatid
- Half of a chromosome
Tissue Types & Transport
- Epithelial tissue
- Covers and lines surfaces
- Connective tissue
- Binds and supports structures
- Nervous tissue
- Carries nerve impulses
- Adipose tissue
- Stores fat, insulates body
- Diffusion
- High to low concentration
- Osmosis
- Water across a membrane
- Active transport
- Movement that uses ATP
Compact vs Cancellous Bone
Compact bone
- Dense, outer layer
- Gives structural strength
Cancellous bone
- Spongy, porous lattice
- Holds red marrow
Dense vs spongy
Joint Movement Picker
- Need movement in all planes→Ball and socket joint(Hip, shoulder)
- Need one-plane movement only→Hinge joint(Elbow, knee)
- Need rotation only→Pivot joint(Neck, atlas-axis)
- Need gliding, sliding motion→Gliding joint(Carpals, tarsals)
- Need thumb opposition→Saddle joint(Base of thumb)
- Need zero movement→Fixed joint(Skull sutures)
Skull & Axial Bones
- Parietal
- Skull roof and sides
- Frontal
- Forms the forehead
- Temporal
- Skull side, near ear
- Occipital
- Skull base and back
- Mandible
- Only movable skull bone
- Cervical vertebrae
- 7 bones in the neck
- Thoracic vertebrae
- 12 bones, rib attachment
- Sternum
- Breastbone, rib attachment
Limb Bones & Classification
- Scapula
- Shoulder blade
- Clavicle
- Collarbone
- Humerus
- Upper arm bone
- Femur
- Thigh, body's longest bone
- Tibia
- Shin bone
- Compact bone
- Dense outer layer
- Cancellous bone
- Spongy, marrow-filled bone
- Sesamoid bone
- Example is the patella
Joint Types & Pathology
- Ball and socket
- Hip and shoulder joints
- Hinge joint
- Elbow and knee joints
- Pivot joint
- Allows neck rotation
- Gliding joint
- Carpals and tarsals
- Kyphosis
- Exaggerated thoracic outward curve
- Scoliosis
- Abnormal sideways spinal curve
- Osteoarthritis
- Wear of joint cartilage
- Osteoporosis
- Reduced bone density
Insulin vs Glucagon
Insulin
- Lowers blood glucose
- Stores glucose as glycogen
Glucagon
- Raises blood glucose
- Converts glycogen to glucose
Lower vs raise glucose
Endocrine Gland Picker
- Raise blood glucose level→Glucagon(Pancreas)
- Lower blood glucose level→Insulin(Pancreas)
- Raise blood calcium level→Parathormone(Parathyroid gland)
- Lower blood calcium level→Calcitonin(Thyroid gland)
- Trigger fight-or-flight response→Adrenaline(Adrenal medulla)
- Retain body water→ADH(Posterior pituitary)
Endocrine Glands & Hormones
- Growth hormone
- Anterior pituitary, stimulates growth
- TSH
- Anterior pituitary, stimulates thyroid
- ACTH
- Stimulates the adrenal cortex
- ADH
- Posterior pituitary, retains water
- Thyroxine
- Sets the metabolic rate
- Calcitonin
- Lowers blood calcium
- Insulin
- Lowers blood glucose
- Glucagon
- Raises blood glucose
Diabetes Mellitus vs Insipidus
Diabetes mellitus
- Insulin or glucose fault
- Affects blood sugar level
Diabetes insipidus
- ADH deficiency
- Causes excess dilute urine
Sugar fault vs water fault
Endocrine Pathology
- Addison's disease
- Adrenal cortex underactivity
- Cushing's syndrome
- Adrenal cortex overactivity
- Diabetes mellitus
- Insulin or glucose fault
- Diabetes insipidus
- ADH deficiency, dilute urine
- Polycystic ovarian syndrome
- Ovarian hormone imbalance
AV Valve Names
Right Tricuspid, Left Bicuspid (Mitral)
Tricuspid: right AV valveBicuspid: left AV valveMitral = bicuspid valve nameBoth are atrioventricular valves
Systolic vs Diastolic Pressure
Systolic
- Higher pressure reading
- Ventricles are contracting
Diastolic
- Lower pressure reading
- Ventricles are relaxing
Contraction vs relaxation
Vessel Picker
- Carry blood away from heart→Artery(Thick, elastic wall)
- Carry blood back to heart→Vein(Has valves)
- Exchange gases and nutrients→Capillary(One cell thick)
- Move deoxygenated blood to lungs→Pulmonary artery(Only such artery)
- Move oxygenated blood from lungs→Pulmonary vein(Only such vein)
- Supply the heart muscle→Coronary artery(Feeds myocardium)
Heart & Major Vessels
- Right atrium
- Receives deoxygenated blood
- Left ventricle
- Pumps blood to the body
- Tricuspid valve
- Right atrioventricular valve
- Mitral valve
- Left AV valve, bicuspid
- Aorta
- Main artery from the heart
- Pulmonary artery
- Only deoxygenated artery
- Pulmonary vein
- Only oxygenated vein
- Coronary arteries
- Supply the heart muscle
Pulmonary vs Systemic Circulation
Pulmonary circulation
- Heart to lungs
- Picks up oxygen
Systemic circulation
- Heart to body
- Delivers oxygen to cells
Lungs vs whole body
Blood & Cardiovascular Pathology
- Erythrocytes
- Red cells, carry oxygen
- Leucocytes
- White cells, fight infection
- Thrombocytes
- Platelets, trigger clotting
- Systolic pressure
- Higher reading, ventricles contract
- Diastolic pressure
- Lower reading, ventricles relax
- Atherosclerosis
- Fatty plaque narrows arteries
- Varicose veins
- Weak, swollen vein valves
- Anaemia
- Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity
Oedema vs Lymphoedema
Oedema
- General tissue fluid buildup
- Has many possible causes
Lymphoedema
- Chronic lymphatic swelling
- Caused by vessel damage
General vs lymphatic cause
Lymphatic Structures
- Lymph
- Fluid from blood plasma
- Lymphatic vessels
- Carry lymph toward ducts
- Thoracic duct
- Drains most of the body
- Spleen
- Filters blood, recycles cells
- Tonsils
- Guard the throat entry
- Peyer's patches
- Guard the gut entry
- Lymph nodes
- Filter lymph, trap pathogens
Lymphatic Function & Pathology
- Immunity
- Lymphocyte defence system
- Oedema
- General tissue fluid buildup
- Lymphoedema
- Chronic lymphatic vessel damage
- Hodgkin's disease
- Cancer of the lymphatic system
Spinal Nerve Pairs
8 Cervical, 12 Thoracic, 5 Lumbar, 5 Sacral, 1 Coccygeal
8 cervical pairs12 thoracic pairs5 lumbar pairs5 sacral pairs1 coccygeal pair31 pairs total
Sympathetic vs Parasympathetic
Sympathetic
- Fight-or-flight response
- Raises heart rate
Parasympathetic
- Rest-and-digest response
- Lowers heart rate
Stress vs recovery
Neurone & Nervous Divisions
- Dendrite
- Receives incoming signals
- Axon
- Carries signal away
- Synapse
- Junction between neurones
- Myelin sheath
- Insulates, speeds the signal
- CNS
- Brain and spinal cord
- PNS
- Cranial and spinal nerves
- Sympathetic
- Fight-or-flight response
- Parasympathetic
- Rest-and-digest response
Cranial Nerves V VII XI
V Trigeminal, VII Facial, XI Accessory
V: trigeminal, face sensationVII: facial, expression musclesXI: accessory, neck and shoulder
Brain Structures & Nerves
- Cerebrum
- Largest part, higher functions
- Cerebellum
- Balance and coordination
- Medulla oblongata
- Controls breathing, heart rate
- Hypothalamus
- Regulates body homeostasis
- Meninges
- Pia, arachnoid, dura mater
- Trigeminal nerve
- Cranial V, facial sensation
- Facial nerve
- Cranial VII, expression muscles
- Accessory nerve
- Cranial XI, neck muscles
Neurological Pathology
- Bell's palsy
- Facial nerve paralysis
- Neuralgia
- Nerve pain along a pathway
- Parkinson's disease
- Progressive movement disorder
- Multiple sclerosis
- Myelin sheath damage
- Sciatica
- Sciatic nerve pain
- Motor neurone disease
- Progressive nerve degeneration
- Cerebral palsy
- Movement and posture disorder
Enzyme Sites Along Canal
Mouth, Stomach, Pancreas, Intestine = enzyme sites
Mouth: amylase starts starchStomach: pepsin, rennin, acidPancreas: amylase, lipase, trypsinIntestine: maltase, sucrase, lactase
Enzyme Picker
- Break down protein in stomach→Pepsin(Needs hydrochloric acid)
- Curdle milk protein→Rennin(Stomach enzyme)
- Break down starch→Amylase(Saliva and pancreas)
- Break down fat→Lipase(Pancreatic enzyme)
- Emulsify fat before digestion→Bile(Liver, stored in gallbladder)
- Break down disaccharides→Maltase, sucrase, lactase(Small intestine)
Digestive Organs & Enzymes
- Stomach
- Churns food, secretes acid
- Duodenum
- First small intestine section
- Liver
- Produces bile
- Pancreas
- Produces digestive enzymes
- Pepsin
- Digests protein in stomach
- Amylase
- Digests starch
- Lipase
- Digests fat
- Bile
- Emulsifies fat, made by liver
Digestive Pathology
- Appendicitis
- Inflamed appendix
- Cirrhosis
- Chronic liver scarring
- Jaundice
- Yellowing from bile pigment
- Irritable bowel syndrome
- Chronic bowel dysfunction
- Ulcer
- Erosion of digestive lining
- Coeliac disease
- Reaction to gluten
External vs Internal Respiration
External respiration
- Alveoli and blood exchange
- Happens inside the lungs
Internal respiration
- Blood and cell exchange
- Happens in body tissues
Lungs vs body cells
Airway & Respiration
- Pharynx
- Shared air and food path
- Larynx
- The voice box
- Trachea
- Windpipe to the bronchi
- Alveoli
- Site of gas exchange
- External respiration
- Gas exchange at the alveoli
- Internal respiration
- Gas exchange at the cells
- Chemoreceptors
- Detect blood carbon dioxide
Respiratory Pathology
- Bronchitis
- Bronchial tube inflammation
- Emphysema
- Damaged alveoli, breathlessness
- Pleurisy
- Inflamed lung lining
- Pneumonia
- Lung infection, fluid buildup
- Asthma
- Narrowed, inflamed airways
- Rhinitis
- Inflamed nasal lining
Reproductive System
- Testes
- Produce sperm, testosterone
- Prostate
- Adds fluid to semen
- Ovary
- Produces eggs, hormones
- Fallopian tube
- Carries egg to uterus
- Uterus
- Houses the developing fetus
- Ectopic pregnancy
- Implants outside the uterus
- Endometriosis
- Uterine tissue grows outside
- Dysmenorrhoea
- Painful menstrual periods
Urinary System
- Kidney
- Filters blood, forms urine
- Bowman's capsule
- Collects the glomerular filtrate
- Ureter
- Carries urine to bladder
- Bladder
- Stores urine
- Filtration
- Blood filtered under pressure
- Urine
- 96% water, 2% urea
- Cystitis
- Bladder infection or inflammation
- Kidney stones
- Hardened mineral deposits
Common Traps
Kyphosis vs Lordosis Direction
Kyphosis = outward thoracic curve ≠ Lordosis = inward lumbar curve
Origin vs Insertion
Origin = fixed attachment end ≠ Insertion = moving attachment end
Eccrine vs Apocrine Glands
Eccrine = all-body cooling sweat ≠ Apocrine = armpit, puberty-linked sweat
Arteriosclerosis vs Atherosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis = general artery hardening ≠ Atherosclerosis = fatty plaque cause
Cranial vs Spinal Nerve Count
Cranial = 12 pairs ≠ Spinal = 31 pairs
Grey Matter vs White Matter
Grey = nerve cell bodies ≠ White = myelinated nerve fibres
Amenorrhoea vs Dysmenorrhoea
Amenorrhoea = absent periods ≠ Dysmenorrhoea = painful periods
Last Minute
- 1.50 questions, 55 minutes total
- 2.Pass 50%, Merit 75%, Distinction 90%
- 3.8 systems carry 5 questions each
- 4.Digestive and respiratory = 3 questions
- 5.Reproductive and urinary = 2 questions
- 6.31 spinal nerve pairs total
- 7.12 cranial nerve pairs total
- 8.Epidermis: basal layer to corneum
- 9.Mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
- 10.Insulin lowers, glucagon raises glucose
- 11.Sympathetic = fight-flight, parasympathetic = rest-digest
- 12.Urine: 96% water, 2% urea
- 13.Compact bone dense, cancellous bone spongy
- 14.No employer sponsor required to sit
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