History, Approaches, and Methods
11-12%of exam
Biological Bases of Behavior
8-9%of exam
Sensation and Perception
7-8%of exam
Thresholds and PerceptionGestalt PrinciplesVision and HearingSignal Detection
States of Consciousness
5-6%of exam
Sleep StagesCircadian RhythmHypnosisPsychoactive Drugs
Learning
8-9%of exam
Classical ConditioningOperant ConditioningReinforcement SchedulesObservational Learning
Cognition
8-9%of exam
Memory SystemsForgettingProblem SolvingLanguage and Intelligence
Motivation and Emotion
5-6%of exam
Motivation TheoriesEmotion TheoriesMaslow's HierarchyArousal and Drive
Developmental Psychology
8-9%of exam
Piaget's StagesErikson's StagesAttachment StylesMoral Development
Personality
7-8%of exam
Psychoanalytic TheoryTrait TheoryHumanistic TheorySocial-Cognitive Theory
Psychological Disorders and Health
8-9%of exam
DSM-5 CategoriesAnxiety and Mood DisordersSchizophreniaStress and Health
Treatment of Disorders
6-7%of exam
Psychotherapy TypesBiomedical TherapyCBTGroup Therapy
Social Psychology
9-10%of exam
Conformity and ObedienceAttribution TheoryCognitive DissonanceGroup Behavior
Statistics, Tests, and Measurement
3-4%of exam
Descriptive StatisticsCorrelationReliability and ValidityStandardization
Quick Facts
- Exam
- CLEP Intro Psychology
- Credential
- College credit via ACE
- Questions
- About 95 multiple-choice
- Time
- 90 minutes
- Pass score
- 50 on 20-80 scale
- Format
- Computer-based, multiple choice
- Level
- Intro college survey course
- Fee
- $97 plus center fee
Independent vs Dependent Variable
Independent variable
- Manipulated by the researcher
- The variable causing change
Dependent variable
- Measured outcome variable
- The effect being observed
Cause vs measured effect
Which Research Method to Use
- Test cause and effect→Experiment
- Describe one case deeply→Case study
- Measure strength of a relationship→Correlational study
- Observe natural, real-world behavior→Naturalistic observation
- Survey a large group→Survey method
Founders and Schools of Thought
- Wundt
- First psychology lab, 1879
- Titchener
- Structuralism, studies conscious elements
- James
- Functionalism, purpose of mind
- Watson
- Founded behaviorism
- Freud
- Founded psychoanalysis
- Wertheimer
- Founded Gestalt psychology
- Maslow
- Humanistic, hierarchy of needs
Structuralism vs Functionalism
Structuralism
- Elements of consciousness
- Wundt and Titchener
Functionalism
- Purpose of behavior
- William James's approach
What vs why of mind
Research Methods and Ethics
- Independent variable
- Manipulated by the researcher
- Dependent variable
- Measured outcome variable
- Correlation
- Shows relationship, not causation
- Double-blind
- Neither party knows condition
- Placebo
- Inert control treatment
Neuron and Neurotransmitters
- Dendrite
- Receives incoming signals
- Axon
- Sends the signal onward
- Synapse
- Gap between two neurons
- Dopamine
- Reward and movement
- Serotonin
- Regulates mood
- Acetylcholine
- Memory and muscle action
- GABA
- Main inhibitory neurotransmitter
Key Brain Structures
- Hippocampus
- Forms new memories
- Amygdala
- Processes fear and emotion
- Hypothalamus
- Regulates hunger and temperature
- Thalamus
- Relays sensory information
- Cerebellum
- Balance and coordination
- Frontal lobe
- Planning and judgment
Sensation vs Perception
Sensation
- Raw sensory input
- Detecting a stimulus
Perception
- Brain interprets the input
- Organizing input into meaning
Detect vs interpret
Thresholds and Perception Principles
- Absolute threshold
- Minimum detectable stimulus
- JND
- Smallest noticeable difference
- Weber's law
- Constant proportion difference
- Sensory adaptation
- Decreased response over time
- Figure-ground
- Object versus its background
- Closure
- Mind fills in gaps
Sleep and Consciousness States
- REM sleep
- Dreaming, rapid eye movement
- Circadian rhythm
- 24-hour biological cycle
- Hypnosis
- Focused, highly suggestible state
- Depressants
- Slow nervous system activity
- Stimulants
- Speed nervous system activity
- Hallucinogens
- Alter perception and mood
Reinforcement Schedule Response Speed
Ratio schedules produce faster responding than interval schedules
Fixed ratio: steady, then pauseVariable ratio: fast, unpredictableFixed interval: scalloped patternVariable interval: slow, steady rate
Classical vs Operant Conditioning
Classical conditioning
- Pairs two stimuli together
- Reflexive, involuntary response
Operant conditioning
- Behavior then a consequence
- Voluntary response emitted
Stimulus link vs consequence
Classical vs Operant Picker
- Neutral stimulus paired with reflex→Classical conditioning(Pavlov's dogs)
- Behavior followed by a consequence→Operant conditioning(Skinner's box)
- Reward strengthens the behavior→Positive or negative reinforcement
- Consequence weakens the behavior→Punishment
- Learn by watching a model→Observational learning(Bandura)
- Rewards come unpredictably→Variable ratio schedule
Classical Conditioning Terms
- UCS
- Naturally triggers a response
- UCR
- Natural, unlearned reflex response
- CS
- Learned trigger stimulus
- CR
- Learned response to CS
- Extinction
- Learned response fades
- Discrimination
- Distinguish similar stimuli
Positive vs Negative Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
- Adds a pleasant stimulus
- Increases the behavior
Negative reinforcement
- Removes an aversive stimulus
- Increases the behavior
Add reward vs remove
Reinforcement Schedules and Types
- Fixed ratio
- Set number of responses
- Variable ratio
- Random number of responses
- Fixed interval
- Set time period passes
- Variable interval
- Random time period passes
- Positive reinforcement
- Adds a pleasant stimulus
- Negative reinforcement
- Removes an aversive stimulus
Memory Process Order
Encode first, then store, then retrieve information
Encoding: getting info inStorage: retaining info over timeRetrieval: accessing stored info
Memory Systems and Process
- Sensory memory
- Very brief sensory trace
- Short-term memory
- Holds about 7 items
- Long-term memory
- Relatively permanent storage
- Encoding
- Getting information into memory
- Storage
- Retaining information over time
- Retrieval
- Accessing stored information
- Ebbinghaus
- Studied the forgetting curve
Emotion Theory Memory Order
Body first, both together, or arousal plus label
James-Lange: body reacts firstCannon-Bard: emotion and body togetherSchachter-Singer: arousal plus cognitive label
James-Lange vs Cannon-Bard
James-Lange
- Body reacts first
- Emotion follows the arousal
Cannon-Bard
- Both happen simultaneously
- Brain sends both signals
Sequential vs simultaneous
Which Emotion Theory Applies
- Body reaction causes the emotion→James-Lange theory
- Emotion and arousal happen together→Cannon-Bard theory
- Arousal needs a cognitive label→Schachter-Singer theory
- Appraisal of event shapes emotion→Lazarus cognitive theory
Motivation and Emotion Theories
- Drive-reduction theory
- Restores internal balance
- Arousal theory
- Seeks optimal stimulation level
- Incentive theory
- Pulled toward external rewards
- Maslow's hierarchy
- Needs ordered by priority
- James-Lange theory
- Body reacts, then emotion
- Cannon-Bard theory
- Emotion and body together
- Schachter-Singer theory
- Arousal plus a cognitive label
Piaget's Four Stages
Sensorimotor, then Preoperational, then Concrete, then Formal
Sensorimotor: birth to 2Preoperational: ages 2 to 7Concrete operational: ages 7 to 11Formal operational: age 12 up
Which Development Theorist Applies
- Object permanence question appears→Piaget(Cognitive stages)
- Trust versus mistrust described→Erikson(Psychosocial stages)
- Heinz dilemma reasoning tested→Kohlberg(Moral stages)
- Strange Situation attachment tested→Ainsworth(Attachment styles)
Developmental Theorists and Stages
- Sensorimotor stage
- Birth to about age 2
- Preoperational stage
- Symbolic, egocentric thinking
- Concrete operational
- Logical thinking about concrete things
- Formal operational
- Abstract, hypothetical reasoning
- Erikson's stages
- Psychosocial crises across the lifespan
- Kohlberg's stages
- Moral reasoning development stages
- Ainsworth
- Researched infant attachment styles
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Trust, then Autonomy, then Identity, then Integrity
Trust vs mistrust: infancyAutonomy vs shame: toddlerIdentity vs confusion: teen yearsIntegrity vs despair: late life
Personality Theories and Structure
- Id
- Instinctual, pleasure-seeking drives
- Ego
- Mediates reality and desire
- Superego
- Internalized moral conscience
- Defense mechanisms
- Reduce anxiety unconsciously
- Big Five
- OCEAN trait model
- Self-actualization
- Reaching one's full potential
- Self-efficacy
- Belief in one's competence
- Reciprocal determinism
- Person, behavior, environment interact
DSM-5 Disorder Categories
- GAD
- Chronic, excessive worry
- Panic disorder
- Sudden, intense fear episodes
- Specific phobia
- Irrational fear of an object
- MDD
- Persistent depressed mood
- Bipolar disorder
- Mania alternating with depression
- Schizophrenia
- Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought
- Antisocial PD
- Disregard for others' rights
- Diathesis-stress model
- Vulnerability plus a stressor
Which Therapy Fits Best
- Client has distorted thinking→Cognitive-behavioral therapy
- Unconscious conflict needs exploring→Psychoanalysis
- Client needs unconditional acceptance→Client-centered therapy
- Severe biological symptoms present→Biomedical therapy
- Specific phobia needs treatment→Systematic desensitization
Therapy and Treatment Types
- Psychoanalysis
- Uncovers unconscious conflict
- CBT
- Changes thoughts and behavior
- Client-centered therapy
- Unconditional positive regard
- Systematic desensitization
- Gradual exposure plus relaxation
- Biomedical therapy
- Medication or ECT
Reliability vs Validity
Reliability
- Consistent, repeatable results
- Same score each time
Validity
- Measures intended construct
- Accurate, meaningful score
Consistent vs accurate
Statistics and Measurement Terms
- Mean
- Arithmetic average
- Median
- Middle value
- Mode
- Most frequent value
- Standard deviation
- Spread around the mean
- Correlation coefficient
- Ranges from -1 to +1
- Reliability
- Consistent, repeatable results
- Validity
- Measures the intended construct
- Standardization
- Uniform testing conditions
Correlation vs Causation
Correlation
- Variables relate to each other
- No manipulation involved
Causation
- One variable causes another
- Requires a controlled experiment
Relationship vs proof of cause
Common Traps
Classical ≠ Operant Conditioning
Classical pairs two stimuli ≠ Operant pairs behavior, consequence
Reliability ≠ Validity
Reliability means consistent results ≠ Validity means accurate results
Sensation ≠ Perception
Sensation detects raw input ≠ Perception interprets that input
Correlation ≠ Causation
Correlation shows a relationship ≠ Causation requires an experiment
Positive ≠ Pleasant Reinforcement
Positive means adding something ≠ Not necessarily a nice thing
Structuralism ≠ Functionalism
Structuralism studies mind's elements ≠ Functionalism studies mind's purpose
James-Lange ≠ Cannon-Bard Order
Body reacts, then feels emotion ≠ Body and emotion occur together
Last Minute
- 1.95 questions in 90 minutes
- 2.Score 50 earns college credit
- 3.Scaled score runs 20 to 80
- 4.Disorders follow DSM-5 terminology
- 5.History/approaches/methods is largest area
- 6.Social psychology second largest 9-10%
- 7.Statistics is the smallest area
- 8.IV is manipulated; DV is measured
- 9.Reliability is consistent; validity is accurate
- 10.Piaget: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, formal
- 11.Erikson: trust, autonomy, identity, integrity
- 12.Milgram tested obedience, Asch tested conformity
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