Shaping, Chaining, Instructional Formats, and Group Contingencies
Key Takeaways
- Shaping reinforces successive approximations when the terminal response is not yet in the repertoire.
- Chaining teaches ordered response sequences through task analysis and selected chaining methods.
- Trial-based and free-operant formats differ in how opportunities, responses, and consequences are arranged.
- Group contingencies must match the goal, peer effects, and fairness of the implementation context.
Building New Behavior
Shaping is selected when the terminal response does not currently occur, but approximations do. The analyst reinforces closer approximations and stops reinforcing earlier forms as criteria shift. Criteria must move gradually enough to preserve responding but quickly enough to avoid strengthening weak approximations.
Shaping requires a clear terminal response, a starting response, reinforcers that can be delivered quickly, and data on progress. It is not the same as prompting. Prompts may help occasion responses, but shaping is defined by differential reinforcement of successive approximations.
Chaining is selected when the skill is a sequence of linked responses, such as making a snack, completing a hygiene routine, or logging into a work system. A task analysis breaks the chain into teachable steps. The correct chaining method depends on learner history, safety, natural reinforcement, and staff capacity.
Chaining Methods
| Method | Starts with | Useful when |
|---|---|---|
| Forward chaining | First step | Early steps cue later steps and learner can tolerate delayed completion |
| Backward chaining | Last step | Contact with terminal reinforcer is important |
| Total-task chaining | All steps each session | Learner can perform many steps with prompts |
Trial-based procedures arrange discrete learning opportunities with a clear antecedent, response, and consequence. They are useful for repeated practice of discriminations, verbal operants, or specific responses. Free-operant procedures allow many responses to occur over time, often in natural routines or fluency-building contexts.
Group Contingencies
| Type | Reinforcement depends on | Exam cue |
|---|---|---|
| Independent | Each person's behavior | Same criterion, individual access |
| Dependent | One or a few members | Hero procedure risk and peer pressure |
| Interdependent | Whole group performance | Team outcome or shared criterion |
Group contingencies can be efficient, but selection must consider social validity and possible unwanted effects. A dependent group contingency may create peer pressure or stigma. An interdependent contingency can build cooperation, but it may be unfair if some members lack the skill or supports needed to meet the criterion.
For exam items, first classify the behavioral unit. Use shaping for a missing response form, chaining for a sequence, trial-based teaching for arranged opportunities, free-operant procedures for repeated responding in ongoing conditions, and group contingencies when reinforcement depends on individual or group performance rules.
A client does not yet say the word water, but says wah when reaching for a cup. The analyst reinforces wah, then wa-ter, then clearer approximations until the full word occurs. Which procedure is this?
A learner is taught to make a sandwich. The analyst completes all steps except the final step, teaches the learner to finish the sandwich, and then gradually teaches earlier steps. Which method is being used?
A teacher tells the class that everyone earns extra recess only if the whole class turns in homework for three consecutive days. What type of group contingency is this?