Securities & FINRA42 min read

Series 7 Last-Minute Review 2026: Final 48-Hour Plan

Your final 48 hours before the Series 7, in order. Updated 2026 exam structure, the two-minute dump sheet, every options and margin formula, and the 12 traps that cost points.

Ran Chen, EA, CFP®January 28, 2026

Key Facts

  • The Series 7 exam delivers 130 items: 125 scored plus 5 unscored pretest questions, per FINRA's October 2025 content outline.
  • FINRA allows 3 hours 45 minutes (225 minutes) for the Series 7 exam, roughly 1 minute 44 seconds per delivered item.
  • The Series 7 passing score is 72, a scaled score that equates to roughly 90 of the 125 scored items.
  • The Series 7 exam fee is $395 in 2026, raised from $300 under FINRA's current qualification exam fee schedule.
  • Function 3, investment information and recommendations, is 73 percent of the Series 7 exam: 91 of 125 scored items.
  • FINRA Rule 3220 raised the gift limit from $100 to $300 per person per year, effective March 30, 2026.
  • Since T+1 settlement began May 28, 2024, FINRA Rule 11140 sets the ex-dividend date on the record date itself.
  • The 2026 IRA contribution limit is $7,500, plus a $1,100 catch-up contribution for savers aged 50 and over.
  • The 2026 401(k) elective deferral limit is $24,500, plus an $8,000 catch-up contribution at age 50 or older.
  • FINRA retake waits remain 30 days, 30 days, then 180 days; the filed 15/15/60 reduction is not yet operational.

📺 Watch the Video

Series 7 Exam Last-Minute Review

You are not learning new material now. You are protecting the points you already own and stopping the four or five predictable mistakes that turn a 71 into a 73.

This page is built for the final 48 hours. It is ordered by where the marks actually are, it flags every number that changed for 2026, and it ends with the exact block of formulas to write on your note board in the first two minutes of the exam.

If you have more than a week left, use the full Series 7 cheat sheet instead. This one is triage.


What Changed for 2026

Most cram sheets online are running on 2024 numbers. Check yours against these before you trust anything on it.

ItemOldCurrentEffective
Series 7 exam fee$300$3952026 fee schedule
SIE exam fee$80$100January 2026
Total items delivered135 (10 pretest)130 (5 pretest)October 2025 outline
FINRA Rule 3220 gift limit$100/person/year$300/person/yearMarch 30, 2026
MSRB Rule G-20 gift limit$100/person/year$300/person/yearJune 1, 2026 (FINRA-member dealers)
Ex-dividend date1 business day before record dateThe record date itselfMay 28, 2024 (T+1)
IRA contribution limit$7,000$7,5002026 tax year
401(k) elective deferral$23,500$24,5002026 tax year
Mandatory Roth catch-upDid not applyRequired for high earnersJanuary 1, 2026
Day-trading marginPattern day trader rules, $25,000 minimumIntraday margin standards; PDT designation eliminatedJune 4, 2026 (firm phase-in to Oct 20, 2027)

Still unchanged, despite what you may have read: the retake waiting periods. FINRA filed an amendment to Rule 1210 on June 29, 2026 that will cut them to 15/15/60 days, but FINRA has said the shorter waits are not yet in effect and will be switched on by a future Regulatory Notice. Until then the waits are still 30 days, 30 days, then 180 days.


Exam Structure (Current Outline)

DetailInformation
Scored items125
Unscored pretest items5
Total items delivered130
Time limit3 hours 45 minutes (225 minutes)
Passing score72
Exam fee$395
CorequisiteSIE exam (either order)
Guessing penaltyNone
Reference materialsNot permitted

Three things about that table trip candidates up.

The pretest count changed. FINRA's October 2025 content outline cut the unscored pretest items from 10 to 5. You now sit 130 items, not 135. The five pretest items are scattered at random and you cannot identify them, so the practical advice is unchanged: answer everything.

"72" is a scaled score, not a raw percentage. FINRA equates every candidate's score onto a common scale so that a slightly harder item set is not punished. In round numbers you are aiming at roughly 90 of the 125 scored items, but the exact raw count that clears the bar moves a little with your particular item set. Do not walk in planning to miss exactly 35.

The SIE is a corequisite, not a prerequisite. You can sit the Series 7 before the SIE. You just cannot be registered as a General Securities Representative until both are passed and your firm has filed your U4.

Budget Your Clock

225 minutes over 130 items is 1 minute 44 seconds per item. Options and margin questions eat two to three minutes each; a definition question takes fifteen seconds. Set two checkpoints: you want to be at item 45 by the 75-minute mark and item 90 by the 150-minute mark. If you are behind at a checkpoint, start flagging and moving instead of grinding.

Retake Rules If It Goes Badly

AttemptCurrent waiting period
After 1st failure30 days
After 2nd failure30 days
After 3rd and subsequent failures (within 2 years)180 days

Each attempt costs another $395, and there is no lifetime cap on attempts.


Where the Marks Actually Are

The exam is built from four job functions with fixed item counts. Ignore the topic ordering in your textbook and study these weights instead.

FunctionDescription%Items
1Seeks business for the broker-dealer from customers and potential customers7%9
2Opens accounts after obtaining and evaluating customers' financial profile and investment objectives9%11
3Provides customers with information about investments, makes recommendations, transfers assets and maintains appropriate records73%91
4Obtains and verifies customers' purchase and sales instructions and agreements; processes, completes and confirms transactions11%14

Function 3 is 91 of your 125 scored items. Products, recommendations, suitability, and the math that supports them. If you have one evening left, spend all of it inside Function 3, and inside Function 3 spend it on options.

Functions 1 and 2 together are only 20 items. Communications rules and account paperwork are worth knowing, but they are not where a borderline candidate is won or lost.


What You Actually Get in the Room

This is the single most common piece of stale advice in Series 7 cram material, including some very well-known books: they tell you to write your formulas on "scratch paper." You will not be given scratch paper.

DeliveryWriting surfaceCalculator
Prometric test centerErasable note boards and dry-erase markers, issued on admittanceFour-function calculator issued by center staff; all materials returned at the end
Online proctoredNo physical note board or paper permitted; an on-screen scratch pad onlyOn-screen four-function calculator only; no physical calculator

You may not bring your own calculator either way, and no personal items go into the room. If you have practiced your dump sheet on paper with your own financial calculator, do one run-through on a dry-erase board with a basic four-function calculator before exam day. The friction is real and it is better discovered at home.


The Two-Minute Dump Sheet

Write these down before you look at item one. Nothing else. If you try to reproduce twelve tables you will burn eight minutes and still not have the one you need.

Options, four lines:

Call BE = Strike + Premium
Put  BE = Strike - Premium
Debit  spread: max loss = net premium; max gain = strike diff - net premium
Credit spread: max gain = net premium; max loss = strike diff - net premium

Margin, three lines:

Long  EQ = MV - DR      Long  call price  = DR / 0.75
Short EQ = CR - MV      Short call price  = CR / 1.30
Reg T 50%  |  Maint 25% long / 30% short  |  Min equity $2,000

Bonds and munis, three lines:

Current Yield = Annual Interest / Market Price
TEY = Muni Yield / (1 - Tax Bracket)
Discount: Coupon < CY < YTM < YTC   (premium reverses)

The T-chart. Draw one empty two-column box labeled DR and CR. Every multi-leg options question goes into it: money out on the left, money in on the right. It is worth more than any formula you can memorize.


Options: The 73% Inside the 73%

The Four Single Positions

PositionRight/ObligationOutlookMax GainMax LossBreakeven
Long CallRight to BUYBullishUnlimitedPremium paidStrike + Premium
Short CallObligation to SELLBearish/NeutralPremium receivedUnlimitedStrike + Premium
Long PutRight to SELLBearishStrike - PremiumPremium paidStrike - Premium
Short PutObligation to BUYBullish/NeutralPremium receivedStrike - PremiumStrike - Premium

Two shortcuts hide in that table. For the long put, max gain and breakeven are the same number. For the short put, max loss and breakeven are the same number. That is two fewer things to memorize.

Buyers pay, so buyers have limited risk. Sellers collect, so sellers accept the greater risk. When a question strands you, start there.

Stock Plus Option: The Four Combined Positions

Most cram sheets stop at covered calls and protective puts. The exam does not. Note that once stock is in the position, every breakeven is measured from the stock cost, not the strike.

PositionStructureMax GainMax LossBreakeven
Covered CallLong stock + short call(Strike - Stock Cost) + PremiumStock Cost - PremiumStock Cost - Premium
Protective PutLong stock + long putUnlimited(Stock Cost - Strike) + PremiumStock Cost + Premium
Covered PutShort stock + short put(Stock Cost - Strike) + PremiumUnlimitedStock Cost + Premium
Protective CallShort stock + long callStock Cost - Premium(Strike - Stock Cost) + PremiumStock Cost - Premium

Think of the two protective positions as insurance. You buy the option pointing the way you are afraid the market will move: long stock and worried about a fall, buy a put; short stock and worried about a rise, buy a call. The premium is the cost of the policy.

Collar: long stock + long put + short call. Caps both ends and is often structured at zero net cost. Own 100 shares at $50, buy the 45 put for $2, sell the 55 call for $2: max loss $500, max gain $500, net premium zero.

In the Money, Intrinsic Value, Time Value

OptionIn the MoneyOut of the Money
CallMarket > StrikeMarket < Strike
PutMarket < StrikeMarket > Strike

Premium=Intrinsic Value+Time Value\text{Premium} = \text{Intrinsic Value} + \text{Time Value}

Intrinsic value is what the option is worth if exercised right now and can never be negative. The floor is zero, never a minus number. Call intrinsic = Market - Strike when positive; put intrinsic = Strike - Market when positive.

Spreads: Identify Before You Calculate

A spread is buying and selling the same type of option (both calls or both puts) on the same underlying. Before you touch a formula, answer one question: did money leave the account or enter it?

SpreadSetupMax GainMax LossBreakeven
Debit Call (Bull)Buy low strike call, sell high strike callStrike diff - Net debitNet debitLower strike + Net debit
Debit Put (Bear)Buy high strike put, sell low strike putStrike diff - Net debitNet debitHigher strike - Net debit
Credit Call (Bear)Sell low strike call, buy high strike callNet creditStrike diff - Net creditLower strike + Net credit
Credit Put (Bull)Sell high strike put, buy low strike putNet creditStrike diff - Net creditHigher strike - Net credit

Every spread has exactly one side equal to the plain net premium and one side equal to strike difference minus net premium. Debit spreads pay the net premium as the max loss; credit spreads keep the net premium as the max gain. There is no third possibility.

Breakeven, two mnemonics instead of four formulas:

  • Call spreads: add to the LOWER strike.
  • Put spreads: subtract from the HIGHER strike.

Which way you want it to move: count the letters. DEBIT and WIDEN are both five letters. CREDIT and NARROW are both six. Paid to get in, you want the spread to widen and the contract exercised. Paid on the way in, you want it to narrow and expire worthless.

Worked example. Buy 1 XYZ 50 call at 5, sell 1 XYZ 60 call at 2. Net debit $3.

  • Max loss = $3 x 100 = $300 (the net premium, because it is a debit)
  • Max gain = ($60 - $50) - $3 = $7 x 100 = $700
  • Breakeven = $50 + $3 = $53 (call spread, add to the lower strike)

Flip it to a credit put spread with the same strikes and premiums and the $300 and $700 simply swap sides.

Vertical, Horizontal, Diagonal

TypeStrikesExpirations
VerticalDifferentSame
Horizontal (calendar)SameDifferent
DiagonalDifferentDifferent

Straddles and Strangles

PositionSetupMax GainMax LossBreakevens
Long StraddleBuy call + buy put, same strike and expirationUnlimited (upside)Total premiums paidStrike +/- total premiums
Short StraddleSell call + sell put, same strike and expirationTotal premiums receivedUnlimited (upside)Strike +/- total premiums
Long StrangleBuy higher strike call + buy lower strike putUnlimited (upside)Total premiums paidCall strike + total, put strike - total
Short StrangleSell higher strike call + sell lower strike putTotal premiums receivedUnlimited (upside)Call strike + total, put strike - total

A straddle has two breakevens because it profits from a move in either direction, and the most common error on the exam is answering with only one of them. Use the total premium of both legs, not the call premium alone.

Buy the straddle when you expect a big move and do not know the direction. Sell it when you expect the stock to sit still. The strangle is the cheaper version that needs a bigger move to pay off.

Example. Buy 1 XYZ 50 call at 4 and 1 XYZ 50 put at 3. Total premium $7. Max loss $700 if the stock closes exactly at $50. Breakevens $57 and $43.

Exercise, Assignment, and Expiration

  • The OCC issues, guarantees, and standardizes every listed option, and assigns exercise notices to clearing firms at random.
  • One equity contract = 100 shares.
  • Listed equity options expire on the third Friday of the expiration month. Trading in the expiring series ends at 4:00 pm ET that Friday; the customer exercise cut-off runs later, to 5:30 pm ET.
  • Automatic exercise applies to any option $0.01 or more in the money at expiration unless the customer files do-not-exercise instructions.
  • American style can be exercised any time before expiration; European style only at expiration. Most equity options are American; broad-based index options are usually European and settle in cash.

Account paperwork: the Options Disclosure Document must be delivered at or before account approval, and the signed options agreement must come back within 15 days of approval. Trading may begin once the account is approved; it is the signed agreement that has the 15-day clock.


Margin

The Two Equations

Equity (Long)=Market ValueDebit Balance\text{Equity (Long)} = \text{Market Value} - \text{Debit Balance}

Equity (Short)=Credit BalanceMarket Value\text{Equity (Short)} = \text{Credit Balance} - \text{Market Value}

RequirementValue
Reg T initial (Federal Reserve)50%
FINRA maintenance, long25% of market value
FINRA maintenance, short30% of market value
Minimum equity$2,000 (or 100% of purchase price if lower)
Intraday marginFirms monitor an intraday margin deficit; the pattern day trader designation and its $25,000 minimum were eliminated
Short stock under $5Greater of $2.50 per share or 100% of market value

Margin Call Shortcuts

Rather than testing values until one breaks, solve for the price directly.

Long account, call at=Debit Balance10.25=DR0.75\text{Long account, call at} = \frac{\text{Debit Balance}}{1 - 0.25} = \frac{\text{DR}}{0.75}

Short account, call at=Credit Balance1+0.30=CR1.30\text{Short account, call at} = \frac{\text{Credit Balance}}{1 + 0.30} = \frac{\text{CR}}{1.30}

Long example. Buy $20,000 of stock on margin. Reg T deposit $10,000, debit balance $10,000. The account goes into maintenance call when market value falls to $10,000 / 0.75 = $13,333. At a market value of $12,000: equity is $12,000 - $10,000 = $2,000, the requirement is 25% x $12,000 = $3,000, so the call is $1,000.

Short example. Sell short $20,000. Credit balance = $20,000 proceeds + $10,000 Reg T = $30,000. The call comes when market value rises to $30,000 / 1.30 = $23,077. At $24,000: equity is $30,000 - $24,000 = $6,000, requirement 30% x $24,000 = $7,200, call = $1,200.

SMA and Restricted Accounts

  • SMA is a line of credit, not cash. It is created when equity exceeds the Reg T requirement, and it equals 50% of any increase in market value.
  • Buying power = SMA x 2.
  • SMA does not disappear when the market drops. This is tested constantly.
  • A restricted account is one where equity has fallen below Reg T but is still above maintenance. No margin call is issued, but new purchases need a deposit, and on any sale the retention requirement sends 50% of the proceeds to SMA while 50% reduces the debit.

Cash Accounts and the Payment Period

Reg T defines the payment period as the standard settlement cycle plus two business days. Under T+1 that is T+3. Miss it and the firm must promptly sell out the position, then apply a 90-day freeze during which the customer must have cash in the account before any order is accepted. Firms may disregard shortfalls of $1,000 or less.


Municipal Securities

GO Versus Revenue

General ObligationRevenue
Backed byFull faith, credit, and taxing powerRevenue of a specific project only
Voter approvalUsually requiredNot required
Debt limitsSubject to statutory limitsNot subject to debt limits
Analysis focusTax base, debt ratios, demographicsFeasibility study, coverage ratio, covenants
Relative safetyGenerally higherDepends entirely on the project

GO analysis: assessed valuation, tax collection rate, debt per capita, debt as a percentage of assessed value, overlapping debt, population trends, economic diversity.

Revenue analysis: feasibility study, debt service coverage ratio, rate covenant, flow of funds, additional bonds test, maintenance covenant.

Flow of funds. Gross revenue pledge pays debt service before operations. Net revenue pledge pays operations first, then debt service. Net is far more common, and it is the one that sounds backwards, which is exactly why it is tested.

Municipal Tax Treatment

LevelTreatment
Federal income taxExempt
State income taxExempt in the issuing state; taxable out of state
Capital gainsAlways taxable
AMTCertain private activity bonds are preference items

Tax-Equivalent Yield=Municipal Yield1Tax Bracket\text{Tax-Equivalent Yield} = \frac{\text{Municipal Yield}}{1 - \text{Tax Bracket}}

  • 4% muni, 22% bracket: 4 / 0.78 = 5.13%
  • 4% muni, 32% bracket: 4 / 0.68 = 5.88%
  • 4% muni, 37% bracket: 4 / 0.63 = 6.35%

MSRB Rules Worth Twenty Seconds Each

The MSRB writes the rules for municipal dealers, banks, and municipal advisors but has no enforcement power. The SEC and FINRA enforce them.

RuleWhat it says
G-17Fair dealing; no deceptive or unfair practices
G-19Suitability of recommendations
G-20Gift limit, raised from $100 to $300 per person per year, operative June 1, 2026 for FINRA-member dealers
G-37Political contributions and pay-to-play
G-15Customer confirmations and disclosure

Rule G-37 in one paragraph. A contribution by a municipal finance professional to an official of an issuer triggers a two-year ban on the dealer engaging in negotiated municipal securities business with that issuer. The exception is a de minimis contribution of $250 or less per election, and only to a candidate the MFP is personally entitled to vote for. The MFP designation follows the person for one year after the last activity or position that gave rise to it. Contributions made before becoming an MFP can still count: the look-back runs two years for solicitors and primary MFPs, and six months for municipal finance principals, supervisory-chain persons, and executive officers.

Municipal Terms

TermDefinition
Legal opinionBond counsel's opinion on legality and tax status; unqualified is clean, qualified carries a reservation
Official statementThe disclosure document, the muni equivalent of a prospectus
Competitive bidAwarded on the lowest net interest cost
Negotiated saleUnderwriter selected in advance, terms negotiated
Pre-refundingNew issue sold to retire an old one; the old bonds become escrowed to maturity or to the call date
Par value$5,000 minimum denomination

Corporate Securities

Bond Seniority

TypeSecured byRelative risk
Mortgage bondReal propertyLowest
Collateral trustSecurities of another companyLow
Equipment trust certificateRolling stock or equipmentLow
DebentureGeneral credit onlyHigher
Subordinated debentureJunior to other debenturesHighest

Convertible Math

Conversion Ratio=Par ValueConversion Price\text{Conversion Ratio} = \frac{\text{Par Value}}{\text{Conversion Price}}

Parity Price of Bond=Stock Price×Conversion Ratio\text{Parity Price of Bond} = \text{Stock Price} \times \text{Conversion Ratio}

Parity Price of Stock=Bond PriceConversion Ratio\text{Parity Price of Stock} = \frac{\text{Bond Price}}{\text{Conversion Ratio}}

Example. A $1,000 bond convertible at $50 gives a conversion ratio of 20 shares. With the stock at $60, bond parity is 20 x $60 = $1,200. With the bond trading at $1,100, stock parity is $1,100 / 20 = $55.

Preferred Stock and Corporate Actions

Preferred typeFeature
CumulativeMissed dividends accumulate and must be paid before common
ParticipatingShares in profits above the stated rate
ConvertibleExchangeable into common
CallableIssuer may redeem
Adjustable rateDividend floats with a benchmark
Corporate actionSharesPriceCost basis per share
2:1 splitDoublesHalvesHalves
1:2 reverse splitHalvesDoublesDoubles
Stock dividendIncreasesDecreases proportionallyDecreases

Total market value and total cost basis are unchanged in every case. Only the per-share numbers move.

Common stock rights: vote (typically one vote per share), receive dividends if declared, preemptive rights to maintain proportional ownership, inspect the books, and a residual claim on assets in liquidation, which is last in line behind every creditor and preferred holder.


Investment Companies

TypeSharesPriced atTraded
Open-end (mutual fund)UnlimitedNAV, forward pricedRedeemed with the fund
Closed-endFixedMarket price, premium or discount to NAVOn an exchange
UITFixedNAVRedeemable; self-liquidating, no active management
ETFCreation unitsMarket price, close to NAVOn an exchange

NAV=Total AssetsLiabilitiesShares Outstanding\text{NAV} = \frac{\text{Total Assets} - \text{Liabilities}}{\text{Shares Outstanding}}

POP=NAV+Sales ChargeSales Charge %=POPNAVPOP\text{POP} = \text{NAV} + \text{Sales Charge} \qquad \text{Sales Charge \%} = \frac{\text{POP} - \text{NAV}}{\text{POP}}

Note the denominator: the sales charge percentage is a percentage of POP, not of NAV. Getting that backwards is a favorite distractor.

Share classLoad12b-1Suits
AFront-end, breakpoints availableLowerLarge amounts, long holding periods
BBack-end CDSC declining over timeHigherLong holds, small amounts
CLevel loadHighestShort horizons, one to three years
FeeMaximum
Sales load8.5% of POP (FINRA Rule 2341, and only if breakpoints, ROA, and LOI are offered)
12b-10.75% distribution plus 0.25% service = 1.00% total
Redemption fee2%

Breakpoints are volume discounts on the sales charge. A Letter of Intent locks in a breakpoint for purchases over the next 13 months and may be backdated up to 90 days. Rights of accumulation let existing holdings count toward the next breakpoint with no time limit. Steering a client just below a breakpoint to earn a higher commission is a breakpoint sale, and it is a violation.


Variable Products

PhaseWhat happens
AccumulationPurchases buy accumulation units in the separate account; growth is tax-deferred
AnnuitizationAccumulation units convert to a fixed number of annuity units
PayoutThe number of annuity units is fixed; the dollar value per unit floats with performance
Payout optionPayment sizeOn death
Life only (straight life)HighestPayments stop
Life with period certainLowerBeneficiary receives payments for the remaining period
Joint and last survivorLowestPayments continue to the survivor
Unit refund lifeLowerBeneficiary receives the remaining units

Investment risk sits with the contract owner, not the insurer. Surrender charges typically run about seven years, and withdrawals before age 59 1/2 add a 10% penalty on the taxable portion.

Variable life has a fixed scheduled premium and a guaranteed minimum death benefit. Variable universal life has flexible premiums and a flexible death benefit but no guaranteed minimum.


Direct Participation Programs

  • Flow-through taxation. Income, losses, deductions, and credits pass through to the partners; the partnership itself pays no tax.
  • Limited partners have liability limited to their investment and must stay passive. Take part in management and you can lose the limited-liability shield.
  • General partner has unlimited liability and manages the program.
  • Illiquid. There is no meaningful secondary market.
ProgramTypical benefitsMain risks
Real estateDepreciation, cash flowVacancy, market values, illiquidity
Oil and gasIntangible drilling costs, depletionDry holes, commodity prices
Equipment leasingDepreciation, steady incomeObsolescence, residual values
Oil and gas programRiskFits
Exploratory (wildcat)HighestAggressive, high income, tax-benefit driven
DevelopmentalModerateModerate
Income (producing wells)LowestConservative, income focused

Tax items: intangible drilling costs are deductible in the year incurred, depletion is available under the cost or percentage method, and at-risk rules cap deductions at the amount the investor genuinely has at risk. Passive losses offset passive income only.

Suitability: DPPs fit high-bracket investors with long horizons who can tolerate total illiquidity, and they are frequently sold only to accredited investors. A retiree who needs income and access to capital is the classic wrong answer.


Customer Accounts and Retirement

Account typeKey feature
IndividualOne owner, full control
Joint tenants with right of survivorshipEqual undivided ownership; passes to the survivor
Tenants in commonSpecified percentages; the decedent's share goes to the estate
Transfer on deathNamed beneficiary, avoids probate
UGMA / UTMAOne custodian, one minor, irrevocable gift
TrustTrustee acts under the trust document
CorporateRequires corporate resolution naming authorized persons
PartnershipGoverned by the partnership agreement

UGMA and UTMA details worth a point: one custodian and one minor per account, the minor is the beneficial owner and the account uses the minor's Social Security number, gifts are irrevocable, the account cannot be margined, and it must be registered in cash. The custodianship ends at the state's age of termination, typically 18 or 21 under UGMA and commonly 21 under UTMA, with some states permitting a later age.

Retirement Plans

AccountContributionsGrowthRMDs
Traditional IRAPre-tax if deductibleTax-deferredBegin at age 73
Roth IRAAfter-taxTax-free if qualifiedNone during the owner's lifetime
401(k) / 403(b)Pre-taxTax-deferredBegin at age 73
Roth 401(k)After-taxTax-free if qualifiedNone, since 2024
SEP IRAEmployer onlyTax-deferredBegin at age 73
SIMPLE IRAEmployee plus employerTax-deferredBegin at age 73

2026 Contribution Limits

PlanEmployee limitCatch-up (50+)Super catch-up (60-63)
401(k) / 403(b) / governmental 457(b)$24,500+$8,000+$11,250
Traditional and Roth IRA$7,500+$1,100n/a
SIMPLE IRA$17,000+$4,000+$5,250
SEP IRAEmployer onlyn/an/a

New for 2026: under SECURE 2.0, a catch-up eligible participant whose 2025 FICA wages from the plan sponsor exceeded $150,000 must make all catch-up contributions as Roth contributions. The IRS indexed that threshold up from the statutory $145,000 in Notice 2025-67. The rule covers 401(k), 403(b), and governmental 457(b) plans. It does not apply to SIMPLE IRAs or SEPs. If the plan has no Roth feature, an affected participant cannot make catch-up contributions at all.

RMDs begin at age 73 and rise to 75 in 2033. The penalty for a missed RMD is 25%, cut to 10% if corrected inside the correction window.

Penalty exceptions before 59 1/2: death, disability, substantially equal periodic payments, medical expenses above 7.5% of AGI, and for IRAs a $10,000 first-time home purchase, qualified higher education, and health insurance premiums while unemployed. The age 55 separation from service exception applies to qualified plans, not to IRAs.


Suitability and Reg BI

Two Standards, Two Audiences

Regulation Best Interest is the SEC standard and it governs recommendations to retail customers. FINRA Rule 2111 still applies where Reg BI does not, principally to institutional and non-retail accounts.

Reg BI obligationRequirement
DisclosureDeliver Form CRS and disclose material facts about the relationship, fees, and conflicts
CareReasonable diligence on risks, rewards, and costs; consider reasonably available alternatives; no excessive trading
Conflict of interestIdentify, disclose, and mitigate or eliminate conflicts
ComplianceWritten policies and procedures reasonably designed to achieve compliance

Form CRS length is a favorite trap. A standalone broker-dealer or investment adviser is limited to two pages. Only a dual registrant combining both businesses into one summary may run to four pages. It must be plain English, delivered at or before the relationship begins, updated within 30 days of a material change, and posted publicly.

Rule 2111's Three Suitability Obligations

  1. Reasonable-basis. The product is suitable for at least some investors, and you understand it.
  2. Customer-specific. It is suitable for this particular customer's profile.
  3. Quantitative. The series of recommendations is not excessive. This is the churning test.

The Customer Profile

FactorWhat to weigh
Investment objectivePreservation, income, growth, growth and income, speculation
Risk toleranceConservative through aggressive
Time horizonShort, intermediate, long
Liquidity needsHow fast the money may be needed
Tax statusBracket, and whether the account is already tax-advantaged
Other investmentsConcentration and diversification across the whole picture
Financial situationIncome, net worth, and existing obligations
Age and experienceLife stage and sophistication
ObjectiveRiskTypical vehicles
Preservation of capitalVery lowT-bills, money market funds, insured CDs
IncomeLowBonds, preferred stock, dividend equities
Growth and incomeModerateBalanced funds, blue chips, utilities
GrowthHigherGrowth stocks, equity funds
SpeculationHighestOptions, penny stocks, wildcat programs

Automatic wrong answers: municipal bonds inside an IRA, a variable annuity inside an IRA sold for the tax deferral, a DPP for someone who needs liquidity, concentrated positions for a conservative investor, and anything speculative for a retiree living on the account.


Regulations

The Four Acts

ActCovers
Securities Act of 1933New issues, the primary market, registration, prospectus delivery, antifraud
Securities Exchange Act of 1934The secondary market; created the SEC; registers broker-dealers and exchanges; 10-K, 10-Q, 8-K reporting
Investment Company Act of 1940Classifies and regulates open-end, closed-end, and UITs
Investment Advisers Act of 1940Registration and fiduciary duty of investment advisers

FINRA Rules

RuleTopic
2010Standards of commercial honor and just and equitable principles of trade
2020Manipulative, deceptive, and fraudulent devices
2111Suitability
2121Fair prices and commissions, home of the 5% policy
2210Communications with the public
2360Options
3110Supervision
3220Gifts and gratuities, limit raised to $300 per person per year effective March 30, 2026
4210Margin requirements
4512Customer account information

The 5% policy is a guideline, not a rule. It applies to markups, markdowns, and commissions in secondary-market transactions, and it takes account of price, order size, availability, and the type of security. It does not apply to securities sold with a prospectus: mutual funds, new issues, DPPs, and variable contracts.

Rule 144: Restricted and Control Securities

ElementRequirement
Holding period6 months for a reporting issuer; 12 months for a non-reporting issuer
Volume limit (affiliates)In any 3-month period, the greater of 1% of shares outstanding or the average weekly trading volume over the preceding 4 weeks
Form 144Affiliates file when the sale exceeds 5,000 shares or $50,000 in any 3-month period
Manner of saleOrdinary brokers' transactions, no solicitation, no special commission
Non-affiliatesFree of volume limits, manner-of-sale rules, and Form 144 once the holding period is met

Exempt Offerings

ExemptionLimit and conditions
Reg A, Tier 1Up to $20 million in 12 months
Reg A, Tier 2Up to $75 million in 12 months; audited financials and ongoing reporting
Reg D 506(b)Unlimited amount; unlimited accredited plus up to 35 non-accredited sophisticated investors; no general solicitation
Reg D 506(c)Unlimited amount; accredited investors only, with verification; general solicitation permitted
Reg CFUp to $5 million in 12 months, through one registered portal or broker-dealer
Rule 147 / 147AIntrastate offerings

Accredited investor: $200,000 individual income or $300,000 joint for the last two years with a reasonable expectation of the same this year, or $1 million net worth excluding the primary residence. Since 2020 the definition also captures individuals holding a Series 7, 65, or 82 in good standing. Passing this exam makes you one.


Trading and Settlement

OrderExecutesUsed for
MarketImmediately at the best available priceCertainty of execution
LimitAt the limit price or betterCertainty of price
StopBecomes a market order once triggeredProtecting a gain, capping a loss
Stop-limitBecomes a limit order once triggeredPrice control, at the risk of no fill

Buy stops and sell limits sit above the market; sell stops and buy limits sit below it.

Time in forceDuration
DayExpires at the close
GTCGood until executed or canceled
IOCFill what you can immediately, cancel the rest
FOKFill the entire order immediately or cancel it
AONFill the entire order, but it may wait

Settlement

TransactionSettlement
Stocks, corporate bonds, munis, government bondsT+1
OptionsT+1
Mutual fundsT+1
Cash tradeSame day
Reg T payment periodT+3 (settlement cycle plus two business days)

T+1 has been the standard cycle since May 28, 2024.

The Ex-Dividend Trap

This is the change that catches candidates working from older material. Under the old T+2 cycle the ex-dividend date fell one business day before the record date. Under T+1, FINRA Rule 11140 sets the ex-date on the record date itself.

  • Buy before the record date and you settle in time to be a holder of record, so you receive the dividend.
  • Buy on the record date, which is now the ex-date, and you do not.
  • For a large distribution of 25% or more of the value of the security, the ex-date instead falls the first business day after the payable date.
  • The stock price typically opens lower by roughly the dividend amount on the ex-date.

Economics

When rates riseWhen rates fall
Bond prices fallBond prices rise
Borrowing slowsBorrowing accelerates
The dollar tends to strengthenThe dollar tends to weaken
Yield curveSignal
Normal, upward slopingExpansion; longer maturities yield more
FlatTransition or uncertainty
InvertedShort rates above long rates; classic recession warning
Indicator typeExamples
LeadingBuilding permits, stock prices, money supply, initial jobless claims, consumer expectations
CoincidentGDP, industrial production, personal income, non-farm payrolls
LaggingUnemployment rate, CPI, prime rate, average duration of unemployment
Fed toolEffect
Open market operationsThe day-to-day tool; buying securities adds reserves, selling drains them
Discount rateWhat the Fed charges banks directly
Fed funds rateWhat banks charge each other overnight; the Fed targets it, it does not set it
Reserve requirementsA blunt tool, and set to zero percent since March 2020

Loosen by cutting rates and buying securities. Tighten by raising rates and selling securities.


Taxes

Capital Gains, 2026

Holding periodRate
One year or lessOrdinary income rates
More than one year0%, 15%, or 20%
CollectiblesUp to 28%
Filing status0% up to15% up to20% above
Single$49,450$545,500$545,500
Married filing jointly$98,900$613,700$613,700
Head of household$66,200$579,600$579,600

Add the 3.8% net investment income tax above modified AGI of $200,000 single or $250,000 joint, which puts the top effective long-term rate at 23.8%.

Rules That Get Tested Every Time

Wash sale. A loss is disallowed if a substantially identical security is bought within 30 days before or after the sale, a 61-day window in total. The disallowed loss is added to the basis of the replacement shares and the holding period carries over. Calls and convertible bonds on the same stock can count as substantially identical; a bond of a different issuer does not.

Cost basis methods. FIFO by default, specific identification if elected at the time of sale, average cost for mutual fund shares.

Gifted versus inherited securities. This pair is a reliable exam question.

GiftedInherited
Cost basisDonor's basis carries over (with a special rule if the market value at gift is lower)Stepped up to fair market value at date of death
Holding periodDonor's holding period carries overAutomatically long-term regardless of actual holding

The 2026 annual gift tax exclusion is $19,000 per recipient, and the basic estate and gift exclusion is $15 million.

Municipal interest is federally exempt, state-exempt in the issuing state, and any capital gain is always taxable. Original issue discount on a muni is accreted annually and that accretion is treated as tax-exempt interest; market discount is ordinary income.

Non-qualified annuities distribute on a LIFO basis, so earnings come out first and are ordinary income. The exclusion ratio determines the tax-free return-of-premium portion once annuitized.


Prohibited Practices

PracticeWhat it is
ChurningExcessive trading to generate commissions
Front runningTrading ahead of a known block order
Painting the tapeTrades among colluding parties to fake activity
Matched ordersPrearranged offsetting buys and sells
Marking the closeTrading at the close to influence the closing price
Pump and dumpInflating a price then selling into it
Insider tradingTrading on material non-public information
Selling awayPrivate securities transactions without firm approval
Unauthorized tradingTrading without consent or written discretion
GuaranteeingPromising a customer against loss; never permitted
Breakpoint saleSteering a purchase just below a breakpoint
FreeridingSelling before paying for a cash-account purchase

Information barriers, the term that replaced "Chinese wall," separate investment banking from trading and research so that material non-public information cannot cross. Firms must maintain and enforce written policies, watch lists, and restricted lists.

Sharing in a customer account requires prior written approval from both the customer and the firm, and the registered representative's participation must be proportionate to their capital contribution. The narrow exception is a joint account with an immediate family member.


Anti-Money Laundering

RequirementTrigger and deadline
CTRCurrency transactions exceeding $10,000 in one business day; filed within 15 days
SARTransactions of at least $5,000 that are known or suspected to be suspicious; filed within 30 calendar days of initial detection
SAR, no suspect identifiedUp to an additional 30 days to identify a suspect, but never more than 60 days total
RetentionSAR and supporting documentation kept for 5 years
CIPName, date of birth, address, and taxpayer identification number, verified
AML programWritten policies, a designated compliance officer, ongoing training, and independent testing

Never tell the customer a SAR was filed. Disclosure is itself a violation, and the confidentiality rule applies even to a subpoena, which the firm must decline while notifying FinCEN.

Red flags: structuring deposits just below $10,000, refusing to give identifying information, wire activity to or from high-risk jurisdictions, third-party deposits, and accounts with no apparent business purpose.


Underwriting and the Primary Market

CommitmentWho carries the riskUnsold securities
Firm commitmentUnderwriterUnderwriter owns them
Best effortsIssuerReturned to the issuer
All or noneIssuerThe whole deal is canceled
Mini-maxIssuerCanceled unless the minimum is sold
StandbyUnderwriterUsed with rights offerings

Sequence: due diligence, registration statement filed, a cooling-off period of at least 20 days, red herring circulated (indications of interest only, no sales, no price), effective date, then the final prospectus with the price.

During the cooling-off period you may not send research, advertising, or a sales confirmation. You may send a preliminary prospectus and take non-binding indications of interest.

Syndicate roleFunctionPaid
Managing underwriterRuns the deal, allocates, may stabilizeManagement fee
Syndicate memberCommits to a portion of the issueUnderwriting spread
Selling groupSells only, takes no underwriting riskSelling concession

Stabilization may be entered at or below the public offering price and never above it. Only the managing underwriter may stabilize, and the bid must be disclosed in the prospectus.


Money Market and Government Securities

InstrumentIssuerMaturityNote
T-billsU.S. Treasury4, 8, 13, 17, 26, 52 weeksSold at a discount, no coupon
Commercial paperCorporations270 days maximumUnsecured, exempt from registration
Banker's acceptanceBanksUp to 270 days, typically 90Finances international trade
Negotiable CDBanksVarious$100,000 minimum, tradable
Repurchase agreementDealersOvernight and upCollateralized borrowing
Fed fundsBanksOvernightExcess reserves lent between banks
Treasury securityMaturityInterest
T-billsUp to 52 weeksDiscount, no coupon
T-notes2 to 10 yearsSemiannual coupon
T-bonds20 and 30 yearsSemiannual coupon
TIPS5, 10, 30 yearsSemiannual coupon on an inflation-adjusted principal
STRIPSVariousZero coupon, stripped from notes and bonds
Series I savings bonds30-year lifeAccrues and compounds semiannually, paid at redemption, not currently

Treasury interest is exempt from state and local tax but fully taxable federally, the mirror image of a municipal bond.

AgencyBackingIssues
GNMA (Ginnie Mae)Full faith and credit of the U.S. governmentMortgage pass-throughs
FNMA (Fannie Mae)No explicit federal guaranteeMortgage-backed
FHLMC (Freddie Mac)No explicit federal guaranteeMortgage-backed
Federal Farm CreditNo explicit federal guaranteeAgricultural lending bonds

Only GNMA carries the explicit full faith and credit of the United States. That single line is worth a point on most exams.


Odds and Ends That Still Show Up

These are the topics candidates skip and then meet on the exam. Each is worth about a minute of review.

Bond Quote Conventions

SecurityQuoted inExample
Corporate bondsPercentage of par, in eighths98 1/8 = 98.125% of par = $981.25
Government notes and bondsPercentage of par, in 32nds98 and 16/32 = 98.50% of par = $985.00
T-billsOn a discount yield basisA higher quoted discount rate means a lower dollar price
Municipal bondsUsually on a yield (basis) basis; dollar bonds quote as a priceA 3.75 basis is a yield to maturity, not a price

Accrued Interest Day Counts

The buyer pays the seller accrued interest from the last coupon date up to but not including settlement.

SecurityDay count
Corporate and municipal bonds30 days per month, 360-day year (30/360)
Government notes and bondsActual days, actual year (actual/365 or 366)
T-bills and zero couponsNone; they pay no periodic interest

Accrued Interest=Par×Coupon Rate×Days360 or 365\text{Accrued Interest} = \text{Par} \times \text{Coupon Rate} \times \frac{\text{Days}}{360 \text{ or } 365}

Settlement is T+1, so the day count runs to the business day after the trade.

Rights and Warrants

RightsWarrants
Exercise priceBelow current marketAbove current market at issue
LifeShort, typically 30 to 45 daysLong, often years, sometimes perpetual
Given toExisting shareholders, one per shareUsually attached as a sweetener to bonds or preferred

Rights value, cum rights=Market PriceSubscription PriceN+1\text{Rights value, cum rights} = \frac{\text{Market Price} - \text{Subscription Price}}{N + 1}

Rights value, ex rights=Market PriceSubscription PriceN\text{Rights value, ex rights} = \frac{\text{Market Price} - \text{Subscription Price}}{N}

N is the number of rights needed to buy one new share. The "+1" appears only while the stock still trades with the right attached.

ADRs

American Depositary Receipts are negotiable receipts for foreign shares held on deposit by a U.S. bank. They trade in dollars and settle domestically, dividends are declared in the foreign currency and converted, and the holder carries currency risk and typically has no voting rights and no preemptive rights. Foreign withholding tax is usually deducted at source, and a U.S. holder may claim a foreign tax credit.

CMOs

A collateralized mortgage obligation carves mortgage cash flow into tranches. Principal repays sequentially: tranche A is retired first, then B, then C. Consequences that get tested:

  • Early tranches carry the least extension risk and the shortest average life.
  • Prepayment risk rises when rates fall and homeowners refinance; extension risk rises when rates rise and prepayments slow.
  • A PAC tranche has a companion tranche absorbing prepayment variability, so the PAC has the more predictable schedule. A TAC protects against prepayment risk only.
  • Z-tranches accrue interest and pay last, so they are the most volatile.
  • Interest is taxable at federal, state, and local level.

Municipal New-Issue Order Priority

Syndicate orders fill in a set order, and the mnemonic is the whole question:

  1. Pre-sale orders, entered before the syndicate wins the bid
  2. Group net orders, credited to the whole syndicate
  3. Designated orders, where the buyer names which members get credit
  4. Member orders, filled for the member's own account

Pre-sale and group net come first because they benefit the entire syndicate.


Analysis and Portfolio Concepts

RatioFormulaMeasures
EPSNet income available to common / shares outstandingProfitability per share
P/EPrice / EPSValuation
Book value per share(Assets - liabilities - intangibles - preferred) / common sharesLiquidation floor
Current ratioCurrent assets / current liabilitiesLiquidity
Quick ratio (acid test)(Current assets - inventory) / current liabilitiesImmediate liquidity
Debt to equityTotal debt / shareholders' equityLeverage
Dividend yieldAnnual dividend / share priceIncome return
Dividend payout ratioDividends / earningsShare of profit distributed
Working capitalCurrent assets - current liabilitiesOperating cushion
Outstanding sharesIssued shares - treasury stockDenominator for EPS
Risk measureReads as
BetaSystematic risk; above 1.0 is more volatile than the market
AlphaReturn beyond what beta predicted
Standard deviationTotal volatility
Sharpe ratioReturn per unit of risk; higher is better
DurationPrice sensitivity to interest rates; longer maturity and lower coupon mean higher duration

Systematic risk is market risk and cannot be diversified away. Unsystematic risk is company or industry specific and can be. Correlation runs from -1 to +1, and diversification only helps to the extent assets are less than perfectly correlated.

Technical terms: support is where buying appears, resistance is where selling appears, a head and shoulders top is a bearish reversal, and a breakout through resistance on rising volume is bullish. Technical analysts study price and volume; fundamental analysts study the company.


Communications With the Public

CategoryDefinitionApproval
Retail communicationDistributed to more than 25 retail investors in any 30 calendar daysPrincipal approval before first use
CorrespondenceTo 25 or fewer retail investors in any 30 calendar daysSupervision and review per written procedures
Institutional communicationTo institutional investors onlyWritten procedures; no principal pre-approval required
Filing requirementTiming
New member firm, retail communicationsFile at least 10 business days before first use, for one year from membership approval
Options retail communicationsFile at least 10 business days before first use
Investment company retail communicationsFile within 10 business days of first use
CMO retail communicationsFile within 10 business days of first use

Prohibited in any communication: guarantees against loss, predictions or projections of performance, exaggerated or unwarranted claims, omission of material facts, and cherry-picked past performance without context. Past performance must state that it does not guarantee future results.


The Traps That Actually Cost Points

1. Debit spread max loss. It is the net premium paid, not the difference in strikes. Credit spread max gain is the net premium received. Every spread has one plain-net-premium side and one strike-difference-minus-premium side.

2. Missing a straddle's second breakeven. Two breakevens, always, and use the combined premium.

3. Reg T versus maintenance. Reg T's 50% is the initial deposit. The maintenance call comes at 25% long or 30% short. A restricted account is not a margin call.

4. SMA does not evaporate. It is a line of credit. A falling market does not erase it.

5. The ex-date is the record date. Under T+1 they are the same day. If your practice bank still says "one business day before," the practice bank is stale.

6. Short options. A naked short call has unlimited risk. A short put's risk stops at the strike minus the premium, because the stock stops at zero.

7. GO versus revenue backing. GO is taxes. Revenue is the project. A toll, a hospital fee, or a water bill is revenue backing, never a GO.

8. Municipal capital gains are taxable. The interest is federally exempt. The gain never is.

9. General partner liability is unlimited. Limited partners are capped at their investment, and lose that protection if they take part in management.

10. Form CRS page limits. Two pages for a standalone firm. Four only for a dual registrant.

11. Sales charge percentage uses POP. The denominator is the public offering price, not NAV.

12. Intrinsic value has a floor of zero. It is never negative. Out of the money means zero intrinsic value, not a negative one.


Your Final 48 Hours

Two days out. Take one full-length timed practice exam under real conditions. Then review only the questions you got wrong, and write down why you missed each one: knowledge gap, misread, or arithmetic. Three-quarters of them will be the last two, and those you can fix tonight.

The day before, until noon. Work your missed-question list and the options tables above. Nothing new. Learning a new topic in the last 24 hours displaces something you already know.

The day before, after noon. Stop. Reproduce the two-minute dump sheet from memory on a dry-erase board twice. Then close everything. Confirm your appointment time and location, put your government-issued photo ID somewhere you cannot forget it, and go to bed early. Cramming past the point of diminishing returns costs more points than it gains.

Exam morning. Eat something. Arrive 30 minutes early. Leave your phone, watch, notes, and calculator in the car or the locker, because none of them come into the room.

First two minutes. Write the dump sheet before item one.

During. Answer everything, because there is no guessing penalty. Flag and move on anything that runs past two minutes; there is always an easier item further down. On review, only change an answer if you can articulate a concrete reason, not a feeling.

You have done the work. Go collect the points you already own.


Sources

  • FINRA Series 7 exam page and the Series 7 Content Outline (October 2025 posting, copyright 2025 FINRA): item counts, job-function weights, time limit, fee, and passing score
  • FINRA Regulatory Notice 26-05: Rule 3220 gift limit increase to $300, effective March 30, 2026
  • MSRB Rule G-20 and MSRB Notice 2026-04: gift limit increase to $300, operative June 1, 2026 for FINRA-member dealers
  • MSRB Rule G-37: $250 de minimis contribution and the two-year ban
  • FINRA Rule 11140 as amended for T+1, effective May 28, 2024: ex-dividend date determination
  • Prometric FINRA exam policies: note boards, markers, and calculator provision
  • IRS 2026 retirement plan limits and IRS Revenue Procedure 2025-32: contribution limits, capital gains thresholds, gift tax exclusion
  • 12 CFR Part 220 (Regulation T) and 31 CFR 1023.320 (broker-dealer SAR rule)

Good luck. Go pass it.

Test Your Knowledge
Question 1 of 8

An investor buys 1 XYZ Oct 50 call at 4 and sells 1 XYZ Oct 60 call at 1. What is the maximum gain?

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