Key Takeaways
- An inference is a logical conclusion drawn from evidence in the text combined with prior knowledge
- Context clues help determine the meaning of unfamiliar words from surrounding text
- Types of context clues: definition, synonym, antonym, example, and inference/general clues
- Author's purpose falls into three main categories: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain
- Tone reflects the author's attitude toward the subject (objective, concerned, critical, supportive, etc.)
- Fact vs. opinion: facts are verifiable; opinions express personal beliefs, judgments, or preferences
- Logical conclusions must be supported by evidence from the passage, not assumptions or outside knowledge
- HESI A2 reading passages are typically health-related and test analytical reading skills
Inference, Context Clues & Author's Purpose
Higher-order reading skills go beyond simple comprehension. The HESI A2 tests your ability to read between the lines, understand word meanings from context, and evaluate the author's intent.
Making Inferences
An inference is a logical conclusion based on evidence from the text combined with your background knowledge. It is NOT a guess — it must be supported by the passage.
How to make an inference:
- Identify the clues or evidence in the passage
- Consider what you already know about the topic
- Draw a logical conclusion that the evidence supports
- Verify that the passage supports your conclusion (not just your opinion)
Example: If a passage states "The patient's skin was pale and cool, and her blood pressure was 80/50 mmHg," you can infer that the patient may be in shock, even if the word "shock" is never mentioned.
HESI A2 Tip: When answering inference questions, look for the answer choice that is MOST directly supported by the passage. Avoid answers that require too large of a logical leap.
Context Clues
Context clues are hints within the text that help you determine the meaning of unfamiliar words:
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | The meaning is directly stated | "Dyspnea, which means difficulty breathing, is common in..." |
| Synonym | A similar word is used nearby | "The wound was necrotic, or dead, at the edges" |
| Antonym | An opposite word provides contrast | "Unlike the acute illness, the chronic condition lasted months" |
| Example | Examples illustrate the meaning | "Analgesics such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen reduce pain" |
| Inference | General context suggests the meaning | "The patient was lethargic, barely responding to questions and unable to stay awake" |
Strategy for context clue questions:
- Read the sentence containing the unknown word
- Read the sentences before and after it
- Look for definition signals: "which means," "also called," "or," "that is"
- Look for contrast signals: "unlike," "however," "but," "whereas"
- Substitute your guess for the word — does the sentence still make sense?
Author's Purpose
Every passage is written with a purpose. The three main purposes are:
| Purpose | Goal | Signal Words/Features |
|---|---|---|
| To Inform | Present facts and information objectively | "Studies show," data, statistics, factual language |
| To Persuade | Convince the reader to agree with a position | "Should," "must," "ought to," opinion language |
| To Entertain | Engage or amuse the reader | Narrative style, dialogue, humor, vivid descriptions |
Most HESI A2 passages are written to inform, as they present factual health and science content.
Tone
Tone is the author's attitude toward the subject. Common tones in academic/health passages:
| Tone | Description |
|---|---|
| Objective | Neutral, presenting facts without bias |
| Concerned | Showing worry about an issue |
| Critical | Questioning or finding fault |
| Supportive | Endorsing or approving |
| Cautious | Careful, noting risks or limitations |
| Urgent | Pressing, calling for immediate action |
Fact vs. Opinion
| Fact | Opinion |
|---|---|
| Can be verified as true or false | Expresses a personal belief or judgment |
| Uses objective language | Uses subjective language ("I think," "best," "should") |
| Supported by evidence | May or may not be supported |
| Example: "The heart has four chambers" | Example: "Cardiology is the most exciting field of medicine" |
Signal words for opinions: best, worst, should, ought to, I believe, probably, in my view, most important, greatest
Logical Fallacies to Recognize
The HESI A2 may test your ability to identify flawed reasoning in passages:
| Fallacy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Hasty generalization | Drawing a broad conclusion from too little evidence | "My grandmother smoked and lived to 95, so smoking isn't harmful" |
| Ad hominem | Attacking the person instead of the argument | "You can't trust Dr. Smith's research because he's young" |
| False cause | Assuming one event caused another just because it came first | "The patient got worse after the nurse changed shifts, so the new nurse caused the decline" |
| Appeal to authority | Using an authority figure's opinion as proof (outside their expertise) | "The celebrity says this supplement cures cancer" |
| Either/or (false dilemma) | Presenting only two options when more exist | "Either we increase nurse staffing or patients will die" |
Making Predictions
Predicting is using information from the passage to anticipate what will happen next or what the author will discuss next:
- Identify the pattern of the passage (is it building toward a conclusion?)
- Look for signal words ("this suggests," "as a result," "leading to")
- Use your understanding of the topic to make a logical prediction
- Verify that your prediction is consistent with the passage's tone and purpose
HESI A2 Tip: Prediction questions ask "Based on the passage, what would the author most likely discuss next?" Base your answer on the logical progression of the passage, not on your personal knowledge.
Critical Analysis of Arguments
On more advanced reading questions, you may need to evaluate the strength of an argument:
Strong arguments:
- Supported by relevant evidence and data
- Use logical reasoning without fallacies
- Consider and address counterarguments
- Come from credible, unbiased sources
Weak arguments:
- Rely on emotional appeals without evidence
- Use logical fallacies (see above)
- Ignore or dismiss opposing viewpoints
- Come from biased or unreliable sources
Evaluating evidence in passages:
- Primary sources — original research, firsthand accounts (strongest evidence)
- Secondary sources — analyses, reviews, interpretations of primary sources
- Anecdotal evidence — personal stories (weakest; not generalizable)
- Statistical evidence — data and numbers (strong when properly collected)
- Expert testimony — opinions from qualified professionals
Synthesizing Information from Multiple Sources
In nursing practice, you will often need to combine information from multiple sources (patient history, lab results, physician orders). The HESI A2 tests a simpler version of this skill:
Synthesis means combining information from different parts of a passage (or from the passage and your knowledge) to form a new understanding.
Steps for synthesizing information:
- Read and understand each piece of information separately
- Look for connections, patterns, or relationships between the pieces
- Combine the information to draw a broader conclusion
- Verify that your synthesis is consistent with all the information
Example: If Paragraph 1 states "Regular exercise improves cardiovascular health" and Paragraph 2 states "Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the US," you can synthesize: "Regular exercise could help reduce the leading cause of death."
Common Logical Fallacies in Reading Passages
Recognizing logical fallacies helps you evaluate the strength of arguments in passages:
| Fallacy | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Ad hominem | Attacking the person instead of the argument | "Dr. Smith's study is wrong because he's too young to know anything." |
| Straw man | Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack | Arguing against a simplified or distorted version of a position |
| Slippery slope | Claiming one event will inevitably lead to extreme consequences | "If we allow flexible scheduling, no one will ever come to work." |
| Hasty generalization | Drawing a broad conclusion from too few examples | "Two patients had side effects, so the drug is dangerous for everyone." |
| Appeal to authority | Using an unqualified authority as evidence | A celebrity endorsing a medical treatment |
| False dilemma | Presenting only two options when more exist | "You can either support this policy or you don't care about patients." |
| Circular reasoning | Using the conclusion as a premise | "This treatment works because it is effective." |
| Red herring | Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention | Discussing hospital parking when debating staffing ratios |
| Bandwagon | Arguing something is true because many people believe it | "Everyone uses this supplement, so it must be effective." |
Tone and Mood in Written Passages
Tone is the author's attitude toward the subject. Mood is the feeling the passage evokes in the reader.
| Tone Word | Meaning | Clue Words |
|---|---|---|
| Objective | Neutral, unbiased | Facts, data, no opinion words |
| Subjective | Personal, opinionated | "I believe," "in my opinion" |
| Persuasive | Trying to convince | "Should," "must," "clearly" |
| Informative | Providing facts | Statistics, definitions, explanations |
| Critical | Finding faults | "However," "on the contrary," "fails to" |
| Optimistic | Positive, hopeful | "Promising," "beneficial," "improvement" |
| Cautious | Careful, reserved | "May," "possibly," "further research needed" |
How to identify tone:
- Look at the author's word choices (diction)
- Note emotional vs. neutral language
- Identify whether the author uses first person (subjective) or third person (objective)
- Consider the author's purpose (inform, persuade, entertain)
Vocabulary in Context — Reading Strategy
When encountering unknown words in HESI A2 reading passages:
- Don't panic — you are expected to use context, not prior knowledge
- Read the entire sentence containing the unknown word
- Read the sentences before and after for additional context
- Look for context clue types:
- Definition clues (word is directly defined)
- Synonym clues (similar word used nearby)
- Antonym clues (opposite word provides contrast)
- Example clues (examples illustrate meaning)
- Inference clues (general context implies meaning)
- Substitute each answer choice into the sentence to test which makes sense
- Eliminate choices that don't fit the context
Primary Source vs. Secondary Source
Understanding source types helps evaluate the strength of evidence in passages:
| Source Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Primary source | Original, firsthand account or data | Research study published by the researchers who conducted it |
| Secondary source | Analysis, interpretation, or summary of primary sources | Textbook chapter reviewing multiple studies |
| Tertiary source | Compilation or index of primary and secondary sources | Encyclopedia, database, bibliography |
On the HESI A2, primary sources are generally considered stronger evidence than secondary or tertiary sources. However, high-quality secondary sources (systematic reviews, meta-analyses) that synthesize many primary studies can also be very strong evidence.
Author Bias and Credibility
When evaluating passages, consider whether the author may have a bias:
Signs of potential bias:
- Use of emotionally charged language
- Presentation of only one side of an argument
- Omission of contradictory evidence
- Financial or personal interest in the topic
- Overgeneralization from limited evidence
Indicators of credibility:
- Author has relevant expertise or credentials
- Claims are supported by cited evidence
- Multiple perspectives are acknowledged
- Language is measured and objective
- Publication source is reputable
A passage states: "The patient refused to take her medication, missed her follow-up appointment, and continued eating high-sodium foods." What can you infer?
In the sentence "The patient exhibited signs of bradycardia, or an abnormally slow heart rate," what type of context clue is used?
Which statement is an OPINION rather than a fact?
Match each author's purpose to its description.
Match each item on the left with the correct item on the right
A passage argues that all nursing students should be required to complete at least 100 hours of volunteer work before graduation. The author's primary purpose is:
Using context clues, what does "lethargic" most likely mean in this sentence: "After the surgery, the patient was lethargic, barely able to keep her eyes open and showing no interest in her surroundings."
A statement that expresses a personal belief or judgment that cannot be objectively verified is called a(n) _____.
Type your answer below